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FIELD  AND  LABORATORY 
NOTE   BOOK 


IX 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


HY 


¥.  A.  xMERRILL 

DKrARTMKNT  OK  GEOGRAI'llY    SI  ATE  NORMAL  SCFIOOL.  ATHENS.  (iEORtilA 


ov  TTo'XX'  aWa  iroXv 


BENJ.  H.  SANBORN  k  CO. 


BOSTON         NEW  YORK         CHICAGO 


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ti-       :  v-i'rij./f 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  California. 

-.                         GIFT    OF 

\au,V/^4^.c^ 

Class 

FIELD  AND  LABORATORY 
NOTE  BOOK 


IN 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


BY 

F.  A.  MERRILL 

M 
DEPARTMENT  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  ATHENS,  GEORGIA 


OV  TTO'W'  aXX^  TToXv 


BENJ.  H.  SANBORN  &  CO. 

BOSTON        NEW  YORK        CHICAGO 


APR    6    i9l| 


COFTBIGHTED   1911 
BY 

F.  A.  MERRILL 


I 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE 

Laboratory  work  in  Physical  Geography  has  for  some  years  been  in  a  transitional  stage  that  is 
now  approaching  but  has  not  yet  reached  a  regular  routine  similar  to  that  of  the  chemistry  or 
physical  laboratory.  Many  teachers  have  been  working  out  a  series  of  laboratory  exercises  for 
their  own  classes.  Some  of  these  that  have  proven  more  or  less  successful  have  been  pub- 
lished as  an  aid  to  other  teachers. 

Professor  Merrill  adds  a  manual  to  the  list  that  appears  to  fill  a  need  in  the  schools  arising  from 
the  fact  that  some  of  the  manuals  already  published  are  too  elementary  and  some  are  too  far 
advanced.  That  is,  some  of  them  require  too  much  purely  mechanical  work,  giving  the  impression 
that  the  object  is  to  occupy  the  hands  of  the  pupil  regardless  of  whether  the  exercise  illustrates 
any  principles  or  leads  to  any  conclusions.  The  other  class  of  manuals  presumes  too  much  on  the 
previous  knowledge  and  experience  of  the  pupil  for  the  early  years  of  the  school. 

This  gap  between  the  two  kinds  of  manuals  appears  to  be  filled  better  by  Professor  Merrill's 
book  than  by  any  other  that  I  have  seen.  It  likewise  is  wider  in  its  scope  and  covers  the  whole 
field  of  Physical  Geography  more  thoroughly  than  any  other.  It  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction 
and  I  hope  it  may  prove  serviceable  to  all  who  use  it. 

T.  C.  HOPKINS. 
(Author  of  Hopkins'  Physical  Geography.) 

Syracuse  University,  January,  1911. 


m 


211261 


APPARATUS 


The  following  maps  and  apparatus  are  needed  for  the  work  outlined  in  the  exercises  given  in 
this  note  book. 


Topographic  sheets 

Donaldsonville  (La.) 
Camp  Mohave  (Ariz.-Nev.-Cal.)- 
Niagara  Falls  and  Vicinity- 
Sea  Isle  (N.  J.) 
Evansville  quadrangle  (Wis.) 
Wicomico  (Md.-Va.) 
Whitewater  (Wis.) 
Milwaukee  quadrangle  (Wis.) 
Lykens  (Penn.) 

Harrisburg  quadrangle  (Penn.) 
Bristol  (Va.) 
Gallatin  (Wyo.) 
Canyon  (Wyo.) 
Cucamonga  (Cal.) 

Mississippi  river  delta  (Coast  Survey  chart) 
Tacoma  (Wash.)  folio 
Oak  Orchard  (N.  Y.) 
Charleston  (W.  Va.) 
Princeton  (Ind.-Ill.) 
Mt.  Mazama  and  Crater  Lake  (Oreg.) 
Lake  Geneva  (Wis.) 
Belchertown  (Mass.) 
Webster  (Mass.) 
Blackstone  (Mass.) 
Sierraville  (Cal.)—. 
Henry  mountains  (Utah) 

Maps 

Ocean  temperature  chart,  wind  zone  map,  current  and  trade  route  map  of  the  world,  thermal 
maps  for  July  and  January,  mean  annual  isothermal  map  of  the  world,  United  States  weather 
maps  for  seven  consecutive  days,  average  annual  rainfall  map  of  the  United  States. 

Chemicals 

Hydrochloric  acid  (HCl),  sea  water,  limewater,  mercury,  alcohol. 


Sevier  desert  (Utah) 
Salton  sea  (Cal4— 
Shasta  special  (Cal.)— 
Boothbay  (Me.) 
White  Bear  quadrangle  (Minn.) 
Caldwell  (Kans.) 
Fargo  (N.  Dak.-Minn.) 
Modoc  (Cal.)t«. 
Kaibab  (Ariz.) 
La  Salle  (111.) 
Shamokin  (Penn.) 
Hummelstown  (Penn.) 
Boston  bay  (Mass.) 
Tolchester  (Md.) 
Provincetown  (Mass.) 
Wellfleet  (Mass.) 
Talmalpais  (Cal.)'- 
Oceanside  (Cal.)«. 
Marysville  (Cal.)  folio- 
Lassen  Park  (Cal.)  . 
Atlantic  City  (N.  J.) 
Sandy  Hook  (N.  J.-N.  Y.) 
Haywards  (Cal.)-= 
Port  Orford  (Oreg.) 
St.  Louis  (Ill.-Mo.) 
Centerpoint  (W.  Va.) 


Minerals,  etc. 

Till  soil,  marble,  granite,  rock,  quartz,  calcite,  mica,  hornblende,  augite,  magnetite,  hematite, 
limonite,  pyrite,  gypsum,  salt,  ice,  gneiss,  shale,  clay,  trap,  sandstone,  limestone,  iron  ore, 
coal,  slate,  loam,  volcanic  rock,  gravel,  sand,  glacial  pebbles. 

Miscellaneous 

Straw  tube,  scales,  stirring  rod,  barometer  tube  36  inches  long,  glass  funnel,  tube  support, 
two  thermometers,  muslin,  glass  flask,  barometer,  cup  for  measuring  precipitation,  two  tin 
cups,  board  with  2-inch  square  opening  in  center,  test  tubes,  glass  tumbler,  hand  magnifier, 
lamp  chimneys,  tin  pans,  small  bottles,  large-mouthed  bottles,  window  glass,  knife,  glass  tub- 
ing, rubber  tubing,  drawing  compass,  pencil,  ruler,  small  globe,  black  colored  ball,  knitting 
needles,  shadow  post,  cardboard,  colored  pencils,  hoop  of  pasteboard,  bar  magnet,  compass 
needle,  dividers,  modeling  sand,  modeling  board,  flat  corks,  candle. 


vi 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

I.    The  earth  as  a  planet 1 

1  —  The  solar  system 1 

2  —  The  moon 3 

3  —  Shape  of  the  earth 5 

4  —  The  size  of  the  earth 6 

5  —  Directions 8 

6  —  Latitude  and  longitude 11 

7  —  Rotation 14 

8  —  Time  belts 16 

9  —  The  seasons 20 

10  —  Magnetism 22 

11  —  Globular  maps 24 

12  —  Mercator's  map 26 

13  —  Contour  maps 28 

14  —  Contour  maps 30 

II.     The  hydrosphere 32 

15  —  Groundwater 32 

16  —  Springs  and  wells 34 

17  —  Water  erosion 35 

18  —  River  profiles 36 

19  —  Transportation 38 

20  —  Alluvial  fans 39 

21  —  Flood  plains 41 

22  —  Deltas 43 

23  —  Youthful  area 45 

24  —  Mature  area 45 

25  —  An  old  age  area 46 

26  —  Water  gaps 47 

27  —  Streams  in  arid  climates 48 

28  —  A  delta  lake 50 

29  —  Crater  lake 51 

30  —  Glacial  lakes 52 

31  —  Niagara  Falls 53 

32  —  Glaciers 55 

33  —  Glacial  effects 56 

34  —  Ice  sheets 57 

35  —  The  ocean 58 

36  —  Composition  of  sea  water 62 

37  —  Ocean  temperatures 64 

38  —  Ocean  currents 66 

39  —  Sargasso  seas 68 

^40  —  The  tides 69 

41  —  Tidal  formations 73 

42  —  Ocean  trade  routes 74 

vii 


PAGE 

III.  The  lithosphere 77 

43  —  Irregular  coast  lines 77 

44  —  Regular  coast  lines 81 

45  —  Lake  shores 84 

46  —  Quartz 86 

47  —  Feldspar 86 

48  —  Calcite 87 

49  —  Mica 88 

50  —  Amphibole  and  pyroxene  groups 89 

51  —  Iron  group 90 

52  —  Gysum  group 91 

53  —  Salt  group 92 

54  —  Ice  group 93 

55  —  The  properties  of  minerals 94 

56  —  The  study  of  rocks 96 

57  —  The  soil 99 

58  —  The  geologic  cycle 102 

59  —  Volcanic  formations 103 

60  —  Laccolites 107 

61  —  Distribution  of  volcanoes 108 

62  —  Earthquakes 109 

63  —  Distribution  of  earthquakes 110 

64  —  Plains Ill 

65  —  Low  coastal  plains 113 

66  —  Narrow  coastal  plains 115 

67  —  Dissected  plains 117 

68  —  Alluvial  plains 118 

69  —  Lacustrine  plain 119 

70  —  Glacial  plains 120 

71  —  Lava  plain 121 

72  —  Peneplains 123 

73  —  Plateaus 124 

74  —  Valleys 126 

75  —  Canyons 130 

76  —  Desert  formation 133 

77  —  Folded  mountains 134 

78  —  Domed  mountains 137 

79  —  Life  history  of  mountains 138 

IV.  The  atmosphere 139 

80  —  Composition  of  the  atmosphere 139 

81  —  Atmospheric  pressure 141 

82  —  The  barometer 142 

83  —  Isobars 145 

84  —  Air  density 147 

85  —  Atmospheric  temperature 148 

86  —  The  thermometer 152 

87  —  Isotherms 153 

88  —  Temperature  zones 155 

89  —  Insolation 157 

90  —  Planetary  winds 158 

91  —  Cyclonic  winds 161 

92  —  Monsoons 162 

93  —  Evaporation 163 

94  —  Condensation 164 

viii 


IV.     The  atmosphere. — Continued.  page 

95  —  Relative  humidity 166 

96  —  Classification  of  clouds 167 

97  —  Precipitation 169 

98  —  Rainfall  in  the  United  States 170 

99  —  Climatic  conditions 172 

100  —  Weather  record 176 

101  —  Weather  conditions 178 

102  —  Weather  maps 180 

V.    Life  distribution 182 

103  —  Life  regions 182 

104  —  Classification  of  plants 184 

105  —  Distribution  of  forests 187 

106  —  Crop  maps 190 

107  —  Faunal  distribution 192 

.  108  —  Distribution  of  man 195 

VI.     Physiographic  regions 197 

109  —  Atlantic  regions 197 

110  —  Lake  region 199 

111  —  Central  Section 201 

112  —  Southern  region 203 

113  —  Interior  Section 205 

114  —  Pacific  Section 207 


IX 


I.     THE  EARTH  AS  A  PLANET 

1  —  The  Solar  System 

Purpose  —  To  understand  what  the  solar  system  is. 
Materials  —  Compass,  pencil,  ruler. 

Give  a  definition  of  the  solar  system. 

What  different  kinds  of  bodies  compose  this  system? 

Write  the  names  of  the  planets  in  their  order  from  the  sun. 

Where  are  the  planetoids  found? 

Name  the  major  planets. 

Name  the  minor  planets. 

Which  of  these  planets  are  plainly  visible  at  certain  times  in  the  year? 

Which  of  the  planets  have  satellites? 

How  many  satellites  has  Jupiter?  Saturn?  Mars?  Earth? 

What  is  the  difference  between  a  star  and  a  planet? 

With  a  scale  of  3,000  miles  to  }4  inch,  draw  circles  showing  the  comparative  sizes  of  the  planets 
from  the  following  table: 

Mean  diameter.  Mean  diameter. 

.  Mercury 3,030  Jupiter 86,500 

Venus 7,700  Saturn 73,000 

Earth 7,917  Uranus 31,900 

Mars 4,230  Neptune     ....  34,800 


f? 


The  Solar  System 


Construct  concentric  circles  to  show  the  orbits  of  the  planets  from  the  following  table : 

Mercury's  orbit 1    inches    in    diameter. 

Venus'  orbit 19 

Earth's  orbit 26 

Mar's  orbit 39 

Jupiter's  orbit 1.34 

Saturn's  orbit 2.46 

Uranus'  orbit 4.95 

Neptune's  orbit 7.75 


2  —  The  Moon 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  phases  of  the  moon. 

Materials  —  Small  globe  or  black  colored  ball,  pencil,  compass,  ruler. 


With  the  light  entering  from  one  side,  hold  the  globe  between  the  eyes  and  the  light. 
How  much  of  the  globe  can  you  see? 
Is  the  visible  part,  dark  or  light? 

Move  the  globe  a  little  to  the  left. 

Is  any  of  its  surface  illuminated? 

What  is  the  shape  of  this  illuminated  part? 

Move  the  globe  above  the  eyes. 

How  has  the  illuminated  part  changed? 

Move  the  globe  below  the  eyes. 

How  has  the  illuminated  part  changed  now? 
What  do  we  call  this  phase  of  the  moon? 
When  do  the  horns  of  the  moon  point  upward? 

Move  the  globe  one-fourth  way  around  the  head. 

How  much  of  the  surface  is  illuminated  now? 
What  is  the  shape  of  this  lighted  part? 
What  do  we  call  this  phase? 

Move  the  globe  one-half  way  around  your  head. 
How  much  of  its  surface  is  lighted  now? 
Can  you  see  any  of  the  darkened  surface? 
Is  this  what  we  call  the  full  moon? 

Move  the  globe  three-fourths  way  around  your  head. 
Which  part  is  illuminated  now? 
Is  this  the  same  side  that  was  illuminated  in  the  first  quarter? 

Move  the  globe  nearly  to  the  position  it  first  occupied. 
What  is  the  shape  of  its  lighted  surface? 

Move  the  globe  above  and  then  below  the  eyes. 

Describe  all  the  changes  in  the  lighted  surface  you  may  see. 


The  Moon 


To  illustrate  the  relative  positions  of  the  moon,  the  earth  and  the  sun  at  the  different  phases  of 
the  moon. 

In  the  center  of  the  sheet  below  place  a  dot  to  represent  the  position  of  the  earth.  Witn  tms  do. 
as  a  center,  construct  a  circle  with  a  radius  of  23^  inches  to  represent  the  orbit  of  the  moon 
around  the  earth.  Upon  the  four  quarters  of  this  circle,  beginning  with  the  right  hand  side, 
draw  small  circles  to  represent  the  moon.  Indicate  the  sun's  rays  as  coming  from  the  right. 
With  your  lead  pencil  darken  the  side  of  the  moon  that  does  not  receive  any  sunlight.  Name 
the  four  positions  of  the  moon.  Illustrate  below  each  quarter  of  the  moon  as  it  would  look 
from  the  earth. 


3  —  Shape  of  the  Earth 

Purpose  —  To  establish  the  shape  of  the  earth. 
Materials  —  A  small  globe,  a  book. 

Give  such  proofs  as  you  can  to  show  that  the  earth  cannot  be  flat. 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  horizon  as  you  look  about  you? 

Ascend  a  high  building  or  tower :  does  the  horizon  expand  or  contract? 

How  does  this  prove  that  the  earth  is  not  flat? 
Illustrate  this  by  means  of  a  diagram. 


Trace  an  east  and  west  path  about  your  small  globe. 
Do  you  come  back  to  your  starting  point? 
Could  you  do  this  on  a  flat  surface? 

Place  the  globe  and  the  book  on  your  desk. 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  shadow  cast  by  your  globe? 
What  is  the  shape  of  the  shadow  cast  by  your  book? 
Does  the  globe  ever  cast  a  shadow  that  is  not  circular? 
Does  the  shadow  of  the  globe  ever  vary  in  shape? 

When  the  earth's  shadow  is  cast  on  the  moon  it  is  always  circular.    This  is  called  an  eclipse  of 
the  moon. 

Stick  a  pin  in  your  globe  so  that  it  stands  upright.    Turn  it  slowly  away  from  you. 
Which  part  of  the  pin  disappears  first? 
Which  part  do  you  see  the  longest? 
Would  this  happen  on  a  flat  earth? 

Give  a  definition  of  a  sphere.    Name  some  objects  that  are  spheres. 
Is  the  earth  a  sphere? 
What  shape  has  the  earth? 
Draw  a  picture  of  a  spheroid. 


Give  some  absolute  proofs  that  the  earth  is  a  spheroid. 

5 


4  — The  Size  of  the  Earth 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  measurements  of  the  earth. 

Materials  —  An  apple,  knitting  needle,  small  globe,  compass,  ruler,  pencil. 


Thrust  the  knitting  needle  through  the  center  of  the  apple. 
What  is  a  diameter? 

With  a  ruler  measure  the  diameter  of  the  apple  as  shown  by  the  needle. 
Measure  the  diameter  through  the  apple  from  side  to  side. 
Is  this  diameter  greater  or  less  than  the  one  represented  by  the  needle? 

Turn  the  apple  about  the  needle. 
What  is  an  axis? 

Turn  the  globe  about  its  axis. 

What  is  the  length  of  this  diameter? 

What  is  the  length  of  the  diameter  from  side  to  side? 

The  earth  is  so  much  larger  than  your  globe  that  there  is  a  marked  difference  between  its  two 
diameters  (about  27  miles). 

Which  diameter  of  the  earth  is  the  larger? 

What  is  a  circumference? 

With  a  piece  of  string,  measure  the  circumference  of  your  apple  and  of  your  globe. 
What  is  the  circumference  of  your  desk? 

Draw  a  picture  of  your  apple  with  the  knitting  needle  through  it  and  indicate  its  axis  and  greatest 
circumference. 


Turn  your  globe  slowly  upon  its  axis. 

What  names  do  we  give  to  the  ends  of  this  axis? 
Where  is  the  greatest  circumference  of  this  globe  located? 
What  do  we  call  this  circumference? 
Where  is  it  located  relative  to  the  poles? 

With  a  radius  of  two  inches,  draw  a  circle  and  indicate  its  two  diameters. 


Name  the  line  which  represents  the  axis  in  your  drawing. 
How  many  times  greater  is  its  circumference  than  its  diameter? 
Mark  the  equator  upon  your  apple. 
Find  the  equatorial  circumference  upon  your  globe. 

Examples. 

If  the  greatest  diameter  of  the  earth  is  7,926.6  miles  what  is  its  greatest  circumference? 

The  mean  diameter  of  the  earth  is  7,917  miles:  what  is  its  surface  area? 

Find  the  volume  of  the  earth. 

The  mean  density  of  the  earth  is  5.6 :  find  its  mass. 


5  —  Directions 

Purpose  —  To  determine  directions  and  to  establish  a  meridian. 
Materials  —  Small  globe,  small  post,  piece  of  cardboard,  ruler,  pencil. 


Rotate  the  globe  counter-clockwise. 

Does  the  axis  change  its  position? 

In  what  direction  does  the  earth's  axis  always  point? 

How  can  you  locate  the  north  star? 

What  name  do  we  give  to  the  upper  end  of  the  earth's  axis? 

To  the  lower  end? 

What  other  directions  does  the  equatorial  diameter  give  us? 

If  you  leave  the  north  pole,  in  what  direction  must  you  travel? 

What  lines  upon  the  globe  give  you  the  north  and  south  directions? 

How  many  of  these  lines  are  there? 

How  far  are  they  apart  at  the  equator?  At  the  poles? 

With  your  pencil  trace  one  of  these  lines  from  pole  to  pole. 
What  part  of  a  circle  have  you  covered? 
How  many  degrees  have  you  covered? 
From  what  line  do  we  reckon  distances  north  and  south? 
How  many  degrees  can  you  go  north?  South? 

Find  the  meridian  marked  0.    This  is  called  the  Prime  Meridian. 
What  large  city  is  located  on  this  meridian? 
From  where  the  0  meridian  crosses  the  equator  pass  to  the  east: 
What  is  the  fartherest  point  you  may  reach? 
What  is  the  naifte  of  this  meridian? 
How  many  degrees  have  you  traveled? 

Suppose  you  go  10  degrees  farther  east:  will  you  be  nearer  or  farther  from  your  starting 
point? 

Place  the  meridian  of  your  home  toward  you. 

How  far  can  you  see  to  the  east?  The  west? 

What  are  the  lines  called  that  extend  east  and  west  of  your  home? 

If  you  should  travel  along  the  parallel  of  your  home,  would  you  go  as  many  miles  as  you 

would  if  you  went  along  the  equator? 
Would  you  go  as  many  degrees? 

These  lines,  called  meridians  and  parallels,  help  us  to  determine  directions  upon  the  earth's  surface. 
The  directions  that  they  give  us  are  called  the  cardinal  points  and  are  established  by  the  rota- 
tion of  the  earth. 


Fill  in  the  blank  quadrants  in  the  figure  below. 


it -j^^ 


NORTH  STAR 


J^^  BIG    DIPPER  ^ 


Method  of  locating  the  North  Star. 


To  establish  a  meridian: 


Fasten  the  small  post  to  the  piece  of  cardboard  so  that  it  will  stand  exactly  perpendicular. 
Place  this  cardboard  in  a  south  window  being  careful  to  see  that  it  is  absolutely  level.  Note  the 
shadows  cast  by  the  post  upon  the  board.  Make  a  mark  upon  the  cardboard  where  the  shadow 
is  shortest.  Do  this  for  several  days  so  that  an  accurate  measurement  may  be  made.  Connect  the 
base  of  the  post  and  the  mark  obtained  with  a  heavy  line:  this  is  the  north  and  south  line  or  merid- 
ian of  the  place.  Check  this  line  at  different  times  of  the  year  and  compare  the  time  the  sun's 
shadow  reaches  it  with  noon  time  as  shown  by  your  clock. 


Upon  a  smooth  piece  of  ground  erect  a  six-foot  post  being  careful  to  get  it  perpendicular.  (This 
may  be  done  with  the  help  of  a  plumb  line.)  Note  the  shortest  shadow  cast  by  this  post.  Drive 
a  small  stake  into  the  ground  at  the  end  of  this  shadow.  With  these  two  points  for  guides,  stake 
off  a  north  and  south  line  about  a  rod  long.  Set  a  permanent  stake  midway  in  this  line.  EstabUsh 
the  east  and  west  directions  from  this  middle  point. 


10 


6  —  Latitude  and  Longitude 


Purpose  —  To  study  latitude  and  longitude. 
Materials  —  Small  globe,  compass,  ruler,  pencil. 


NORTH  POLE 


SOUTH   POLE 


Draw  lines  parallel  to  the  equator  through  the  points  indicated  upon  the  meridian.  Draw  the 
meridians  from  pole  to  pole.  For  the  tropical  circles  (latitude  23^)  and  the  polar  circles  (latitude 
663^)  draw  dotted  lines  parallel  to  the  equator. 

Number  the  parallels  by  indicating  their  degrees  from  the  equator.  Do  the  same  with  the 
meridians,  numbering  the  center  one  0.  Write  the  names  of  the  circles  and  of  the  equator  in  their 
proper  places. 


H 


How  many  meridians  have  you  upon  your  diagram? 

How  far  apart  are  these  meridians? 

Which  is  the  most  eastern  meridian?  The  most  western? 

How  many  degrees  of  longitude  are  there? 

What  is  longitude? 

How  many  miles  of  longitude  are  shown  upon  the  equator? 

Do  the  degrees  of  longitude  vary  in  length? 

What  are  the  limits  of  this  variation? 

About  what  is  the  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  at  your  home? 

How  many  parallels  are  there  in  your  diagram? 

How  far  apart  are  these  parallels? 

How  many  are  north  of  the  equator?  How  many  south? 

How  many  degrees  can  you  go  north  of  the  equator?  How  many  south? 

What  is  latitude? 

Is  there  any  variation  in  the  length  of  the  degrees  of  latitude? 

On  which  parallel  is  a  degree  of  longitude  equal  to  half  the  length  of  a  degree  on  the  equator? 

What  kind  of  angles  do  the  meridians  make  with  the  equator? 

Study  the  meridians  and  parallels  on  your  globe.   Note  the  differences  between  the  ones  on 
your  globe  and  those  in  your  drawing. 

How  many  meridians  are  there  on  your  globe? 

How  many  could  there  be? 

How  far  apart  are  these  meridians? 

Which  one  is  marked  0?  Which  one  180? 

What  kind  of  angles  do  these  meridians  make  with  the  parallels? 

Why  do  not  the  meridians  in  your  drawing  make  the  same  kind  of  angles? 

How  many  parallels  are  there  on  your  globe? 

How  do  they  vary  in  size? 

Do  the  meridians  vary  in  size? 

Find  the  circles  on  your  globe :  how  are  they  marked? 

What  is  the  latitude  of  the  north  pole? 

What  is  its  longitude?  Why? 

What  is  the  latitude  of  the  equator? 

Does  the  equator  have  a  longitude? 

What  is  the  latitude  of  your  home  town? 

What  is  its  longitude? 

Find  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  capital  of  your  state. 


12 


To  determine  the  latitude  of  your  home. 

Upon  the  post  that  was  erected  to  establish  a  north  and  south  line,  fasten  a  four-foot  stick, 
pivoted  in  the  center,  so  that  it  will  move  up  and  down.    Point  this  stick  to  the  north  star  and  with 
a  protractor  measurp  the  angle  it  makes  with  the  uprieht  DOst.    This  angle  subtracted  from  90 
degrees  will  give  the  latitude  of  your  place 
Why?  Prove  this. 

(As  the  axis  of  the  earth  does  not  point  directly  to  the  north  star,  there  will  be  a  slight  error 
approximating  1}4  degrees  according  to  the  time  of  year  the  observation  is  taken.) 

To  determine  the  longitude  of  your  home. 

The  longitude  of  a  place  is  found  by  getting  the  difference  in  time  in  hours  between  that  place 
and  Greenwich  and  multiplying  it  by  15.  The  earth  turns  360  degrees  in  24  hours,  therefore  mov- 
ing 15  degrees  every  hour.  From  an  almanac,  get  the  difference  in  time  between  your  home  (or 
that  of  the  nearest  recorded  city)  and  Greenwich.  Multiply  this  by  15  to  get  the  required  degrees 
of  longitude. 


13 


Rotation 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  rotation  of  the  earth. 
Materials  —  A  small  globe. 


Place  the  globe  in  the  sunlight  so  that  both  poles  are  lighted. 
How  much  of  the  globe  is  illuminated? 
What  is  the  shape  of  this  illuminated  part? 
How  much  of  the  globe  is  dark? 

What  do  we  call  the  lighted  part?  The  darkened  part? 

Locate  the  "twihght  zone." 
What  time  of  day  is  it  to  places  in  this  zone? 

Turn  the  globe  slowly  from  west  to  east. 

Does  the  circle  of  illumination  change? 

Which  side  of  the  globe  is  entering  darkness? 

What  time  is  it  at  these  places? 

When  is  it  noon  at  any  place? 

How  do  the  sun's  rays  strike  the  earth  at  noon? 

At  evening? 

How  many  degrees  of  longitude  pass  the  sun  in  one  rotation? 

What  is  the  speed  of  the  earth's  rotation? 

Which  places  upon  the  earth's  surface  will  see  the  morning  sun  first? 

Which  part  of  the  earth  moves  the  fastest? 

Place  the  globe  with  the  north  pole  pointing  toward  the  sunlight. 
How  much  of  the  globe  is  illuminated? 

How  far  beyond  the  north  pole  does  the  circle  of  illumination  extend? 
Does  the  south  pole  receive  any  sunUght? 

Rotate  the  globe :  does  any  part  of  the  earth  fail  to  receive  light? 
Locate  these  places. 

What  causes  day  and  night? 

Are  days  and  nights  of  equal  length  all  over  the  earth? 

Where  are  the  nights  the  longer? 

Where  are  the  days  and  nights  of  equal  length? 

Repeat  these  experiments  by  placing  the  south  pole  toward  the  sunlight  and  note  any  differences 
you  may  discover. 


H 


Trom  a  study  of  your  globe,  give  the  approximate  differences  in  time  between 

Greenwich  and  Buenos  Aires 

Philadelphia  "  New  Orleans 

Cape  Town  "  Pekin 

Washington  ''  your  home. 


Fill  in  the  following  table: 


Lengths  of  days 

Places 

Latitude 

March  21 

June  21 

December  21 

Entebbe 

Mazatlan 

Christiania 

Ness 

Your  own  home 

0 

60 
663^ 

fl 

Give  proofs  that  the  earth  rotates  upon  its  axis. 


Illustrate  by  a  drawing  that  falling  bodies  tend  to  deviate  toward  the  east. 


Explain  Foucault's  Pendulum. 


15 


8  —  Time  Belts 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  time  belts. 
Materials  —  Small  globe,  colored  pencils. 


Rotate  the  globe  from  west  to  east. 

In  what  direction  does  each  day  travel? 

When  it  is  noon  on  the  0  meridian,  what  time  is  it  on  the  90th  west?  On  the  90th  east? 

When  Tuesday  is  beginning  in  Greenwich,  what  time  is  it  in  San  Francisco?  Pekin? 

(A  day  is  reckoned  from  midnight  to  the  following  midnight.) 
When  it  is  noon  Saturday  at  Greenwich,  what  time  is  it  at  the  179th  meridian  west?  At 

the  179th  east? 
What  change  in  time  takes  place  at  the  180th  meridian? 
If  you  sail  east  across  this  meridian  do  you  gain  or  lose  a  day? 
If  you  sail  west? 

Upon  the  map  of  the  world  ink  heavily  the  0  and  the  180th  meridians. 
Draw  the  International  Date  Line  on  this  map. 
Why  does  not  the  International  Date  Line  coincide  with  the  180th  meridian? 

Color  with  yellow  pencil  an  area  of  the  map  which  will  represent  12  hours  of  sunhght. 
Is  this  the  same  as  the  circle  of  illumination  upon  your  globe? 
Over  which  meridian  is  the  noon  sun  shining? 

Turn  your  globe  toward  you  to  coincide  with  your  map:  do  the  boundary  meridians  of 
your  globe  correspond  to  those  on  your  map? 

With  a  band  of  yellow  mark  an  hour  of  time  on  the  map.    Mark  four  minutes  of  time. 

Draw  the  meridian  of  your  home. 

How  far  is  it  from  the  Greenwich  meridian? 
East  or  west? 

How  will  the  time  of  your  meridian  vary  from  that  of  the  0  meridian?  From 

that  of  the  140th? 

Upon  the  map  of  the  United  States,  ink  the  meridians  that  are  used  as  the  bases  for  the  Standard 
Time  Belts. 

How  far  apart  are  these  meridians? 

How  much  difference  in  time  between  any  two  of  them? 

Why  were  these  meridians  chosen? 

What  large  cities  are  near  each  meridian? 


16 


Sketch  in  the  time  belts  with  colored  pencils  using  a  different  color  for  each  belt.      (Maps  of  these 
belts  to  help  establish  their  boundaries  may  be  found  in  any  physical  geography.) 
Name  the  belts. 

Why  are  the  boundaries  of  these  belts  so  irregular? 
When  is  it  noon  in  each  belt? 

Is  the  time  slow  or  fast  at  a  place  east  of  the  belt  meridian? 
West  of  it? 

Which  places  would  be  likely  to  use  two  kinds  of  time? 
Is  the  time  of  your  own  home  slow  or  fast  of  your  belt  time? 
How  much? 
Which  section  of  the  United  States  passes  from  Central  to  Pacific  time?  Why 

is  this? 
Explain  any  other  marked  irregularities  that  you  find  on  your  map. 


17 


18 


9  —  The  Seasons 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  seasonal  changes. 

Materials  —  Small  globe,  a  hoop  of  pasteboard  just  large  enough  to  slip  over  the  globe,  compass, 
ruler,  pencil. 


Study  the  apparent  path  of  the  sun  through  the  heavens. 

At  what  season  of  the  year  is  the  sun  highest  at  noon  where  you  live? 

At  what  season  is  it  lowest? 

Where  does  the  sun  rise? 

Does  it  always  rise  at  just  the  same  place? 

When  are  the  days  longest?  About  how  long? 

When  are  the  nights  longest?  About  how  long? 

Is  the  sun  high  at  noon  when  the  days  are  short? 

At  what  times  in  the  year  does  the  sun  rise  directly  in  the  east  and  set  directly  in  the  west? 

Hold  the  globe  up  even  with  your  eyes  with  the  axis  inclined  233/^  degrees  to  the  right  hand.    Place 
the  pasteboard  hoop  over  the  globe  level  with  the  eyes. 

What  part  of  the  globe  is  directly  in  front  of  your  eyes? 
Can  you  see  both  the  north  and  the  south  poles? 

Pass  the  globe  to  the  left,  keeping  it  at  the  same  level  and  having  its  axis  point  in  the  same  direc- 
tion.   Move  it  one-fourth  way  around  your  head. 
Which  part  of  the  globe  is  opposite  your  eyes? 
Can  you  see  beyond  the  north  pole? 
Can  you  see  the  south  pole? 

Pass  the  globe  one-half  way  around  your  head  keeping  the  axis  in  the  same  direction. 
Which  part  of  the  globe  is  opposite  your  eyes  now? 
Can  you  see  each  pole? 

Pass  the  globe  three-quarters  way  around  your  head  letting  the  axis  point  in  the  same  direction. 
Describe  its  position  relative  to  your  eyes. 


What  is  revolution? 


What  is  inclination? 


What  is  parallelism? 


20 


The  hoop  about  your  globe  represents  the  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit.     (It  is  also  the  plane  along 
which  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  pass  to  the  earth.) 

Trace  the  Hne  printed  upon  your  globe  to  represent  this  plane. 

What  is  this  line  called? 

How  much  is  the  axis  of  the  earth  inclined  to  this  plane? 

What  is  the  measurement  of  the  angle  between  this  plane  and  the  equator? 

How  far  beyond  the  poles  does  the  circle  of  illumination  ever  pass? 

What  determines  the  distance  of  the  tropical  circles  from  the  equator? 

What  determines  the  distance  of  the  polar  circles  from  the  poles? 


With  the  north  pole  of  the  globe  pointed  toward  you  and  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  at  the  level  of 
your  eyes,  rotate  it  slowly. 

Describe  the  day  and  night  of  the  north  pole. 

Of  the  south  pole.  Of  the  60th  parallel  of  latitude. 

What  season  is  it  in  the  northern  hemisphere? 

In  the  southern  hemisphere? 


Briefly  describe  the  seasonal  changes  due  to  the  change  in  the  sun's  position. 


With  a  radius  of  IM  inches  describe  a  circle  to  represent  the  path  of  the  earth  about  the  sun. 
At  the  four  quarters  of  this  circle  represent  the  earth  by  smaller  circles.  Indicate  the  north  pole 
in  each  of  these  smaller  circles  as  it  would  be  located  for  each  of  the  seasons.  Color  that  part  of 
the  earth  dark  which  does  not  receive  any  sunlight.    Name  each  of  the  four  positions. 


21 


10  —  Magnetism 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  magnetism  of  the  earth. 

Materials  —  Bar  magnet,  compass  needle,  some  pins,  pencil. 

Place  several  pins  upon  your  desk :  hold  the  end  of  the  bar  magnet  close  to  the  pins.    What  occurs? 

Use  the  other  end  of  your  magnet  and  describe  what  happens. 

Place  the  north  end  of  your  magnet  next  to  the  north  end  of  your  compass  needle.    Describe  the 
movement  that  takes  place. 

Reverse  your  bar  magnet.    What  occurs? 

Place  the  south  end  of  your  bar  magnet  below  the  north  end  of  your  needle.    How  does  the  com- 
pass needle  move? 

Swing  the  compass  needle.    Where  does  it  stop? 

Why  does  this  show  that  the  earth  is  probably  a  magnet? 

Which  end  of  the  compass  needle  points  toward  the  north? 

Which  end  of  the  earth's  magnet  must  be  at  the  north? 

Locate  the  north  magnetic  pole. 

Is  this  a  point  or  an  area? 

What  happens  to  the  compass  needle  as  it  approaches  the  north  magnetic  pole? 

Does  the  compass  needle  ever  point  to  the  true  north? 

What  are  agonic  hues? 

Trace  the  agonic  lines  on  the  accompanying  map. 

What  is  magnetic  declination? 

What  are  isogonic  lines? 

In  what  general  direction  do  they  extend? 

Draw  the  10,  30,  and  60  isogonic  lines. 

What  are  isoclinic  Unes? 

In  what  general  direction  do  they  extend? 

Draw  the  20,  50,  and  70  isoclinic  lines. 

22 


11  —  Globular  Maps 

Purpose  —  To  represent  the  curved  surface  of  a  hemisphere. 
Materials  —  Small  globe,  compass,  pencil,  ruler. 


Place  your  globe  in  the  sunlight  and  allow  its  shadow  to  fall  against  a  white  upright  surface. 
What  is  the  shape  of  the  globe? 
What  is  the  shape  of  the  shadow? 

How  many  dimensions  has  the  globe?  The  shadow? 

Sketch  a  picture  of  this  shadow. 


What  is  projection? 

What  kind  of  a  figure  is  the  projection  of  a  sphere? 

How  is  it  foreshortened? 

Is  its  outline  true  to  shape? 

Where  will  its  dimensions  be  correct? 

Move  the  globe  farther  from  the  upright  surface. 
How  does  its  shadow  vary  in  size? 
Does  the  shadow  vary  any  in  shape? 

Move  the  globe  until  the  shadow's  diameter  is  one  half  that  of  the  globe. 
What  is  scale? 
Why  is  scale  necessary  in  map-making? 

Draw  the  meridians  and  parallels  upon  the  accompanying  map.    Number  them  by  their  proper 
degrees.    Place  the  circles  in  their  right  location  and  name  them. 

How  do  these  lines  compare  with  the  lines  on  your  globe? 
Is  this  drawing  a  fair  projection  of  your  globe? 
Are  all  the  degrees  of  latitude  the  same  length? 
Account  for  this  difference. 

How  does  the  110th  meridian  differ  from  that  of  your  globe? 

Locate  by  latitude  and  longitude  the  following  places:  (Make  a  dot  where  they  are  to  be 

placed  on  your  map.) 
Cape  Barrow,  St.  Johns,  Cape  Hatteras,  Cape  Sable,  Yucatan,  Panama,  San  Francisco, 

Alaskan  peninsular.    Sketch  in  the  outHne  of  North  America. 
How  does  this  sketch  vary  from  the  North  America  of  your  globe? 
What  inaccuracies  do  you  find? 

Compare  the  width  of  North  America  at  the  60th  parallel  with  its  width  on  your  globe. 

24 


Globular  Projection 


25 


12  —  Mercator's  Map 

Purpose  —  To  draw  a  world  projection  in  which  the  points  of  the  compass  do  not  shift. 
Materials  —  Small  globe,  dividers,  ruler,  pencil. 


What  kind  of  angles  do  the  meridians  and  parallels  make  upon  your  globe? 

With  your  dividers  measure  the  distance  between  meridians  at  the  equator.  The 

60th  parallel.  The  90th  parallel. 

What  kind  of  lines  are  the  north  and  south  lines  on  your  globe? 

On  your  globular  map? 

What  kind  of  lines  are  the  east  and  west  lines  on  your  globe? 

On  your  globular  map? 

What  kind  of  a  line  is  the  equator? 

If  the  meridians  are  drawn  at  right  angle  to  the  equator  on  your  globular  map,  will  they 

be  at  right  angle  to  the  other  parallels? 
Does  the  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  vary  as  we  go  north? 
In  what  ratio? 

Upon  the  diagram  on  the  next  page,  draw  the  parallels  and  equator  as  straight  lines.    (Use  the 
marks  on  the  margins  for 'a  guide.) 

Do  the  east  and  west  points  of  the  compass  change  on  this  map? 
Which  side  of  the  map  is  east?  Which  is  west? 

Draw  the  meridians  indicated  by  the  marks  on  the  other  margins. 
Are  these  meridians  perpendicular  to  the  parallels? 
Do  the  north  and  south  points  of  the  compass  change? 
Can  you  get  direction  by  a  straight  line? 
Are  the  degrees  of  longitude  of  the  same  length? 
Do  the  meridians  meet  at  the  poles? 
What  represented  the  poles  in  your  globular  map? 
What  is  the  shape  of  the  north  pole  in  this  map? 
What  distortion  has  taken  place? 

Why  cannot  a  scale  be  given  for  a  Mercator  map? 

Number  the  meridians  as  designated  and  sketch  in  North  America.     Compare  this  with  the 
North  America  of  your  globe. 

How  long  have  you  made  your  north  pole? 
Which  part  of  North  America  is  distorted  the  most? 
Is  there  any  north  and  south  distortion? 
Of  what  advantage  is  a  Mercator  map? 

26 


s 


27 


13  —  Contour  Maps 

Purpose  —  To  express  relief  features  by  contour  lines. 
Materials  —  Modeling  sand,  sand  board,  ruler,  pencil. 


Fashion  the  moist  sand  into  hill  forms  with  their  attendant  valleys.     Do  not  try  for  irregular 

formations  but  make  the  relief  simple. 
Draw  a  flat  outline  map  of  your  model,  indicating  the  position  of  the  hills  and  valleys  by  inserting 

names.    Select  your  own  scale  and  indicate  this  on  your  drawing. 


Study  your  model  carefully. 

How  high  is  your  highest  hill? 
Note  the  heights  of  all  the  hills  in  inches. 

Dot  all  points  on  your  map  that  have  an  elevation  of  1  inch,  2  inches,  3  inches,  etc. 
Connect  with  an  irregular  line  all  points  that  have  the  same  height.      These  are  con» 
tour  lines. 

What  general  shape  do  your  hill  contours  have? 

Do  contour  Unes  extend  up  or  down  a  valley? 

Where  do  the  contour  lines  come  closest  together? 

With  a  scale  for  elevation  of  50  feet  to  an  inch,  number  the  contour  lines  on  your  map. 

Study  some  simple  formations  about  your  home.    Reproduce  upon  your  sand  board  some  simple 
valley  formation  found  near  your  home.     (A  washed-out  gully  after  a  shower  will  do  very  well.) 

Where  is  its  highest  part? 
In  which  direction  does  the  land  slope? 
Is  the  slope  gradual  or  sudden? 
Find  all  the  points  of  equal  elevation. 
Compare  altitudes  and  depressions. 

28 


76''SO 


Study  the  contour  lines  in  the  accompanying  map. 

Which  section  represents  the  lowest  part  of  the  map? 
Why? 

Trace  out  the  principal  river  valleys. 
Where  are  the  highest  sections? 

Where  are  the  level  sections? 


How  high  are  they? 

How  far  apart  are  the  contour  lines? 

Is  the  river  in  the  valley  correctly  drawn? 

What  changes  would  you  suggest? 

Draw  a  river  in  the  valley  to  the  west. 

What  formation  do  you  find  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the  map? 

Shade  lightly  with  your  pencil  all  sections  of  the  map  that  represent  the  Potomac  river  or 
its  tributaries. 

29 


14  —  Contour  Maps 

Purpose  —  To  construct  a  contour  map  from  given  data  and  to  draw  a  given  profile. 
Materials  —  Ruler,  pencil. 

60       50       •VO      io       3.0      to        0 


Scale:  1  mile  to  1  inch. 


Connect  with  irregular  lines  all  points  having  the  same  altitude. 
What  is  the  general  shape  of  the  island? 
Where  are  the  highest  points  located? 
Draw  the  river. 
Indicate  the  swamp  land. 
What  is  the  contour  scale? 

How  long  is  the  island? 
How  far  apart  are  the  hills? 
How  many  feet  above  sea  level? 

How  high  is  the  source  of  the  river? 
How  much  is  its  fall? 

Describe  the  general  features  of  the  island. 


30 


To  draw  a  profile  along  the  line  AB. 

Wherever  contour  lines  cross  the  line  AB  draw  dotted  hnes  (two  of  them  are  shown  in  the 
diagram)  to  the  corresponding  elevation  lines  at  the  left.  Connect  the  ends  of  the  dotted 
lines  where  they  meet  the  elevation  lines.    This  will  give  the  required  profile. 


B.     CONTOURS.  DRAINAGE.  AND  CULTURE?  PART  OF  MONTROSS  (VA.-MD.)  SHEET 


Study  the  profiles  along  the  lines  AB  and  CD.     Compare  their  irregularities  and  note  their 
differences.    Construct  a  profile  along  the  line  WX. 


31 


II     THE  HYDROSPHERE 


15  —  Groundwater 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  solvent  effect  of  groundwater. 

Materials  —  Lime  water,  some  fragments  of  limestone  or  marble,  granite,  hydrochloric  acid 
(HCl),  test  tube,  straw,  Bristol  (Va.)  topographic  sheet. 


Place  some  small  pieces  of  the  limestone  or  marble  in  the  test  tube  and  cover  them  with,  water. 
Add  a  little  dilute  HCl.      Describe  what  takes  place. 


Add  more  acid. 

Does  the  HCl  entirely  dissolve  the  limestone? 
What  will  the  residue  be  (if  there  is  any)? 
What  color  is  the  liquid? 

Place  some  small  pieces  of  the  granite  in  the  test  tube,  and  repeat  the  above  experiment.    Describe 
the  results. 


Place  some  limewater  in  the  test  tube.    With  a  straw,  blow  through  the  Umewater.    What  takes 
place? 


Continue  to  blow  into  the  limewater.     Describe  what  happens  when  an  excess  of  CO  2  from  the 
breath  is  introduced. 


Will  pure  water  dissolve  limestone? 

Will  HCl  dissolve  limestone? 

Will  an  excess  of  CO  2  dissolve  limestone? 

How  are  caves  formed? 


In  what  kind  of  soil  will  caves  be  found? 
What  chemical  compounds  does  the  groundwater  contain? 

32 


Bristol  (Va.)  topographic  sheet. 


Locate  the  two  sink  belts  in  the  contour  map.    Study  their  location  in  regard  to  other  topo- 
graphic features. 

In  what  direction  do  these  belts  run? 
Describe  their  general  formation. 


About  how  many  sinks  are  there  in  each  belt? 
Where  is  this  area  located  in  your  United  States  map? 

Are  there  other  sink  areas  near  this? 

Why  should  these  sink  holes  be  located  at  this  place? 

Where  are  the  out-cropping  hard  layers? 
Why  have  these  layers  resisted  erosion? 

Mark  with  an  X  the  highest  elevations  and  trace  with  a  pencil  the  principal  drainage  areas. 

Describe  briefly  the  topography  of  this  section. 


33 


16  —  Springs  and  Wells 


Purpose  —  To  study  spring  and  well  formation. 
Materials  —  Pencil  and  note  book. 


Field  work  —  Visit  some  spring  near  your  home.  Study  its  location,  topography  of  the  surround- 
ing land,  kind  of  soil,  and  the  quality  of  its  water.  Is  the  spring  intermittant?  Is  the  water 
cool  or  warm?  Does  the  water  come  from  some  nearby  source?  Write  a  good  account  of  your 
trip,  embodying  answers  to  these  questions. 


Watch  the  digging  of  a  well. 

How  is  a  well  constructed? 


How  deep  are  the  wells  about  your  home? 

How  high  does  the  water  rise  in  the  well  you  are  studying? 

What  does  this  prove? 

When  is  the  water  in  the  well  low? 

What  is  the  source  of  this  well-water? 


Explain  an  artesian  well. 

34 


17  —  Water  Erosion 

Purpose  —  To  study  water  erosion. 

Materials  —  Pencil,  note  book,  Gallatin  and  Canyon  (Wyo.)  topographic  sheets. 


Study  the  effects  of  running  water  upon  the  soil.  (The  school  yard  after  a  heavy  rain  storm  fur- 
nishes an  effective  area  for  study.)  Measure  the  depths  of  the  gullies  made  by  the  running  water 
and  compute  their  areas.  Study  the  erosive  effects  of  some  nearby  stream  or  river.  Map  a  given 
area,  showing  the  main  channels  and  their  tributaries. 


Write  a  short  account  of  the  effects  of  water  erosion. 


Topographic  sheets. 

Outline  the  various  drainage  areas. 
Describe  evidences  you  find  of  erosion. 

Where  has  erosion  occurred  the  most? 

Note  the  altitude  of  the  Yellowstone  river's  bank. 

What  is  the  fall  of  Broad  creek  as  shown  by  your  map? 

Locate  the  marshes  and  give  their  altitude. 

Describe  the  Carnelian  creek  drainage  basin. 


35 


18  —  River  Profiles 


Purpose  —  To  map  the  profiles  of  rivers. 
Materials  —  Cross-section  paper,  pencil. 
Example. 

Niagara  river.  Miles  from  mouth. 

Mouth 0 

Escarpment 7 

Whirlpool 11 

Below  falls 14 

Above  falls 14 

Head  of  rapids 15 

Lake  Erie 30  . 

Vertical  scale — 250  feet  to  1  in.     Horizontal  scale — 6  miles  to  1  in. 

3 


Feet  above  sea. 

.  250 

.  270 

.  300 

.  360 

.  520 

.  550 

.  570 


/  ^  J  >/  d" 

Upon  cross-section  paper  construct  profiles  of  the  following  rivers: 

Mississippi  river.  Miles  from  mouth.  Feet  above  sea  level. 

Mouth 0 0 

Vicksburg 487 48 

Mouth  of  Ohio  river     ....  1,090 275 

"       "   Missouri 1,290 395 

LaCrosse         1,790 630 

St.  Paul 1,937 685 

Lake  Itasca 2,295 1,460 

Arkansas  river. 

Mouth       ........     690 115 

Wichita 1,380 1,225 

Pueblo 1,885 4,700 

Source 1,980 6,500 

Vertical  scale — 500  ft.  to  each  numbered  square.     Horizontal  scale — 200  miles  to  each  numbered  square. 

36 


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37 


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19  —  Transportation 


Purpose  —  To  study  transportation  processes. 
Materials  —  Note  book,  pencil. 


Field  work  —  Visit  a  small  stream  near  your  home  where  the  process  of  erosion  is  active.    Examine 
the  stream  carefully. 

Is  it  carrying  any  sediment? 

Where  did  the  stream  get  this  sediment? 

Describe  the  kind  of  sediment  the  stream  is  carrjdng. 


How  large  are  the  largest  soil  particles  that  are  being  carried? 
"Would  larger  streams  carry  larger  particles? 
Is  there  any  material  held  in  solution  in  the  stream? 
What  color  is  the  stream? 


Is  the  stream  deepening  its  course? 
What  is  "headwater  erosion"? 

Is  the  main  stream  straight? 
What  is  a  meandering  stream? 

What  causes  the  stream  to  meander? 

How  does  the  shape  of  a  stream's  bed  vary  with  its  age? 

What  are  tributary  streams? 

Do  they  carry  sediment? 

What  becomes  of  the  sediment  carried  by  a  stream? 

Can  you  find  any  of  it  left  along  the  banks? 
What  does  sediment  left  at  these  places  form? 
Are  these  bars  permanent? 

Is  the  direction  of  the  stream's  course  changed  by  these  bars? 
Will  a  shallow  stream  carry  much  sediment? 
What  kinds  of  streams  will  carry  larger  rocks  and  stones? 

38 


20  —  Alluvial  Fans 

Purpose  —  To  study  alluvial  fans. 

Materials  —  Cucamonga  (Cal.)  topographic  sheet. 

In  a  few  brief  words  describe  the  topography  of  this  section. 


Locate  this  region  upon  a  United  States  map. 

What  are  its  general  cUmatic  conditions? 

About  what  is  its  rainfall?  * 

What  mountains  are  represented  at  the  northern  part  of  the  map? 

Have  these  mountains  been  more  or  less  eroded? 

What  shows  this? 

In  what  direction  does  the  plain  slope? 

How  much  is  the  fall  of  the  plain  as  shown  on  your  map? 

Trace  out  the  principal  streams  and  describe  their  drainage  basins. 


In  what  direction  do  these  streams  run? 
Where  do  they  rise? 

Trace  the  boundaries  of  the  San  Antonio  fan. 
How  many  other  fans  do  you  find. 
How  do  the  contour  lines  bend  around  these  fans? 
Explain  why  they  should  do  this. 


What  form  do  the  rivers  take  after  they  reach  the  highest  point  of  the  fans? 
What  name  would  you  give  to  this  form? 
From  what  places  did  the  material  for  these  cones  come? 

39 


What  is  the  average  slope  of  the  San  Antonio  fan  for  the  first  five  miles  of  its  course? 

What  is  the  area  of  this  fan  (approximately)? 

What  kind  of  sediment  composes  these  fans? 

What  conditions  will  arise  when  the  mountain  streams  become  swollen  with  the  spring 
floods? 


Where  are  the  roadways? 

In  what  direction  does  the  railroad  extend? 

Are  there  any  human  habitations  on  the  fans? 

Where  are  the  cities  and  towns  located? 


Field  work  —  Study  the  alluvial  fan  formations  found  in  the  school  yard  after  a  hard  rain.    Com- 
pare with  the  map  formations. 

Sketch  a  map  of  the  yard  formation. 


40 


21  —  Flood  Plains 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  construction  of  a  flood  plain. 
Materials  —  Donaldsonville  (La.)  topographic  sheet. 


Locate  this  area  upon  the  United  States  map. 

What  is  the  scale  of  the  contour  map?  Of  the  United  States  map? 

What  is  the  contour  interval? 

Which  part  of  the  Mississippi  river  does  this  contour  map  represent? 


Make  a  cross  section  from  Bayou  Verrette  to  the  swamp  on  the  other  side  of  the  river.    Indicate 
the  scale  used. 

Where  are  the  highest  points  of  the  plain? 
Are  these  natural  or  artificial? 
Describe  a  levee. 


Trace  the  drainage  areas  tributary  to  the  Mississippi. 
How  do  they  vary  in  size? 

In  which  directions  do  they  extend? 
Are  these  areas  level  or  uneven? 
Why  are  there  so  many  swamps? 

Where  are  the  roadways? 

Explain  the  causes  that  led  to  their'location. 


Of  what  use  are  flood  plains  to  man? 

Where  are  the  human  habitations  located? 

Is  this  a  healthful  region? 

Describe  the  bed  of  the  Mississippi  river. 


41 


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42 


22  —  Deltas 

Purpose  —  To  study  delta  formation. 

Materials  —  Mississippi  river  delta,  Coast  survey  chart,  Tacoma  (Wash.)  folio, 

Mississippi  river  delta. 

Locate  this  section  upon  the  United  States  map. 

How  does  this  delta  map  vary  from  the  contour  charts? 

What  do  the  numbers  signify? 

What  is  the  scale  of  this  map? 
Trace  the  course  of  the  Mississippi  river. 

Compare  this  part  of  the  Mississippi  with  other  parts  of  the  river  as  shown  in  the  United 
States  map  and  explain  any  differences  you  may  see. 


How  many  main  distributaries  has  the  Mississippi  river? 

What  form  do  they  take? 

Why  does  a  river  need  distributaries? 


Show  this  need  from  your  United  States  map. 

Trace  all  the  smaller  streams  running  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Gulf. 

Where  is  new  land  being  formed? 

Describe  the  formation  of  the  Chandeleur  islands. 

How  have  these  islands  influenced  the  shape  of  the  land? 

What  is  the  depth  of  the  water  inside  these  islands? 
Why  is  it  difficult  for  ships  to  enter  the  Mississippi? 

Why  is  New  Orleans  the  only  large  city  in  this  section? 

What  will  be  the  nature  of  the  land  about  this  river? 

Compare  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi  with  that  of  the  Amazon,  the  Nile  and][the  Ganges. 

43 


Tacoma  (Wash.)  folio. 

What  is  the  contour  interval  of  this  map? 

Trace  the  two  smaller  valleys  and  study  their  general  formation. 

How  much  wider  are  they  than  their  rivers? 

In  what  direction  do  they  extend? 

How  long  is  the  main  valley?  How  wide? 

Where  is  the  present  delta? 

Describe  its  shape? 


What  kind  of  land  forms  this  delta? 

Where  do  you  find  other  evidences  of  swamps? 

Are   there    any    distributaries? 
Describe  them. 

Where  are  the  alluvial  plains? 

What  kind  of  a  river  is  the  main  stream? 

Where  are  the  cities  located? 

Why? 

Describe  the  location  of  the  railroads. 

What  kind  of  a  harbor  has  Tacoma? 


How  much  difference  in  elevation  is  there  between  the  valley  and  the  cliff  opposite  Mc- 
Millan? 


44 


23  —  Youthful    Area 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  erosive  action  of  a  young  stream. 
Materials  —  Oak  Orchard  (N.  Y.)  topographic  sheet. 


Locate  this  area  on  your  United  States  map. 
What  lake  is  at  the  north? 
In  what  general  direction  does  the  land  slope? 
Is  this  slope  regular  or  irregular? 

What  is  the  difference  in  elevation  between  East  Gaines  and  Point  Breeze? 
Are  the  rivers  large? 

Are  they  swift  or  slow  flowing?  Why? 

How  deep  is  the  bed  of  Oak  Orchard  creek? 
What  future  changes  are  likely  to  occur  in  its  banks? 


Where  do  you  find  swamp  areas? 

Why  are  there  no  lakes  or  ponds? 

How  far  apart  are  the  heavy  contour  lines? 
Where  is  the  greatest  fall  in  Oak  Orchard  creek? 

In  what  directions  do  the  roadways  run? 
Why  are  they  not  more  irregular? 

What  would  be  the  industries  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  area? 


24  —  Mature  Area 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  erosive  action  of  a  mature  stream. 
Materials  —  Charleston  (W.  Va.)  topographic  sheet. 


Compare  this  sheet  with  the  one  studied  above. 

What  differences  do  you  note  in  the  drainage  areas? 
What  evidences  do  you  find  of  extensive  erosive  action? 

45 


Was  this  area  once  like  the  area  in  the  former  sheet? 
What  evidences  do  you  find  to  prove  this? 

What  kind  of  a  plain  has  the  Kanawha? 

Where  is  this  river  eroding  its  bluffs? 

Why  do  we  term  the  rivers  of  this  section  mature  rivers? 

Where  are  the  cities  and  roadways  located? 

Compare  these  roads  with  those  on  the  previous  map. 
Where  are  the  railroads  located?  •       Why? 

Would  the  industries  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  area  be  such  as  those  of  the  people  living 
in  the  section  represented  by  the  Oak  Orchard  sheet? 

What  would  be  the  industries  of  this  section? 


25  — An  Old  Age  Area 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  erosive  action  of  an  old  stream. 
Materials  —  Princeton  (Ind.  -  111.)  topographic  sheet. 

Compare  this  sheet  with  the  two  just  studied. 
How  does  this  differ  in  topography? 

How  do  the  rivers  differ  from  those  shown  in  the  other  areas? 

Where  do  you  find  the  greatest  elevations? 

Explain  the  presence  of  the  Claypole  and  Gordon  hills. 

What  evidences  do  you  find  that  this  plain  once  contained  much  swamp  land? 

Explain  the  origin  of  the  "cut  offs." 

What  evidences  do  you  find  of  irrigation? 
What  is  the  prevailing  industry  in  this  area? 
Why  are  there  no  large  cities  in  this  section? 

Compare  the  roadways  with  those  of  the  two  maps  just  studied. 
»  46 


26  —  Water  Gaps 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  water  gaps. 
Materials  —  Harrisburg  (Penn.)  topographic  sheet. 

What  is  the  scale  of  this  contour  map? 

What  is  the  contour  interval? 

Locate  this  area  upon  the  United  States  map. 

What  mountain  system  crosses  this  section? 

How  do  the  mountain  ranges  run? 

Is  this  arrangement  characteristic  of  the  whole  system? 

Find  the  three  elevation  areas  and  give  their  altitudes. 

Trace  the  boundaries  of  the  flat  river  valley. 

Upon  which  side  of  the  river  is  this  valley  the  broader? 

Where  does  this  valley  plain  entirely  disappear? 

How  many  water  and  wind  gaps  do  you  find  in  this  section? 
Where  is  the  first  water  gap  of  thi  Susquehanna  river? 

How  wide  is  it?  5^ 

Where  is  the  second  gap? 

How  wide  is  it? 

Where  are  the  largest  tributaries  to  be  found?  Why? 

Why  is  the  Conodoguinet  creek  so  meandering  in  its  course? 


Is  this  section  composed  of  hard  or  soft  rock? 

Has  the  Susquehanna  river  carried  much  sediment? 
What  formations  show  this? 

Account  for  the  presence  and  formation  of  the  islands. 

Where  are  the  towns  located? 

Upon  which  bank  will  you  find  the  larger  towns?  Why? 

Explain  the  presence  of  the  railroad  bridge  opposite  Fort  Hunter. 

Would  this  be  a  good  agricultural  section? 
Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

47 


27  —  Streams  in  Arid  Climates 

Purpose  —  To  study  stream  formation  in  an  arid  climate. 

Materials  —  Sevier  Desert  (Utah),  Camp  Mohave  topographic  sheets. 

Sevier  Desert  sheet. 

What  is  the  scale  of  this  map? 
What  is  the  contour  interval? 
Why  is  this  so  large? 

Locate  this  area  upon  your  United  States  map. 
What  is  the  average  annual  rainfall  of  this  section? 
Why  does  it  receive  so  little  rain? 

What  mountains  surround  this  area? 

What  and  where  is  the  greatest  elevation? 

What  is  the  average  altitude  of  the  Sevier  desert? 
Where  is  the  canyon  of  the  Sevier  river?  ^ 

Are  the  drainage  areas  well  developed? 

How  many  lakes  do  you  find  in  this  section? 

What  are  their  sizes? 

Where  do  they  get  their  water? 

Describe  Spring  lake  and  its  outlet. 


Why  are  there  no  inlets? 

Where  does  Spring  lake  get  its  water? 
What  becomes  of  the  outlets  of  Spring  lake? 


In  which  direction  does  Oak  creek  run? 

What  is  the  height  of  its  source? 

What  supplies  it  with  water? 

At  what  elevation  does  it  disappear? 

In  which  direction  does  Cherry  creek  run? 

Wliich  part  of  Cataract  creek  is  dry  part  of  the  year? 

Describe  the  Round  valley  drainage  system. 

48 


Camp  Mohave  sheet. 

Compare  the  contour  irregularities  of  this  sheet  with  those  of  the  Sevier  desert  sheet. 
Which  has  the  more  irregular  contour?  Why? 

Which  has  the  higher  elevations? 
Which   has   the   greater   plains? 

What  is  the  annual  rainfall  for  this  section? 

What  mountains  are  in  this  area? 

Are  they  regular  or  irregular  in  contour? 

In  which  direction  does  the  Colorado  river  flow? 
What  is  the  nature  of  its  channel? 

Are  there  any  tributary  drainage  systems? 
Why? 

Account  for  the  presence  of  so  many  wells  and  springs  in  this  section. 


Why  are  there  no  rivers  or  creeks  of  any  size? 

Trace  the  course  of  the  short  stream  from  the  springs  on  the  side  of  Mt.  Perkins. 
What  becomes  of  this  stream? 
How  long  is  it? 
How  much  is  its  fall? 

Why  are  there  no  tributary  streams  in  the  defiles  just  west  of  the  Colorado  river? 

Account  for  the  hot  spring  near  Mt.  Wilson. 


In  what  direction  does  Meadow  creek  flow? 
Describe  the  trail  from  Kingman  to  Camp  Mohave. 


49 


28  —  A  Delta  Lake 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  a  delta  lake. 
Materials  —  Reconnaissance  map,  Salton  Sea,  California. 

Locate  this  area  upon  your  United  States  map  and  study  its  topographic  conditions. 

What  do  the  minus  signs  mean  on  this  map? 

Was  this  section  ever  a  part  of  the  Gulf  of  California? 

What  river  formed  a  delta  to  cut  off  the  Salton  Sea? 
How  was  this  done? 


Trace  the  outline  of  the  old  Gulf  of  California. 

How  much  below  the  level  of  the  Gulf  of  California  is  the  Salton  Sea? 

How  much  higher  is  the  old  delta  than  the  Salton  Sea? 

Where  is  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  river? 

What  conditions  must  arise  for  this  river  to  drain  into  the  Salton  Sea? 


Did  this  ever  occur? 

Is  the  Salton  Sea  fresh  or  salt?  Why? 

What  kind  of  land  forms  the  barrier  between  the  Gulf  of  California  and  the  Salton  Sea? 

Is  this  land  fertile?  Why? 

Why  does  the  water  of  the  Salton  Sea  keep  at  approximately  the  same  level? 

What  supplies  this  sea  with  water? 

Study   the    drainage   areas    about   this   sea. 


50 


29  —  Crater  Lake 

Purpose^ —  To  study  the  formation  of  a  crater  lake. 

Materials  —  Geologic  map  of  Mt.  Mazama  and  Crater  lake  (Ore.). 


What  is  the  scale  of  this  map? 

What  is  the  contour  interval? 

What  is  the  greatest  elevation  you  find  in  this  area? 

Where  is  it? 

Where  do  you  find  a  plain  formation? 

How  wide  is  this  lake? 

What  is  its  shape? 

What  is  the  altitude  of  its  shore  line? 

How  deep  is  the  lake? 

Where  is  the  deepest  part? 


What  supplies  this  lake  with  water? 

Explain  the  presence  of  Wizard  island. 

What  keeps  the  lake  from  overflowing? 

Draw  a  cross-section  of  the  lake  from  Fleetwood  cove  to  Eagle  cove. 


What  evidences  do  you  find  of  erosion? 

Is  this  a  region  of  hard  or  soft  rock?  Why? 

What  sort  of  drainage  ai;eas  are  found  in  this  section? 

51 


30  —  Glacial  Lakes 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  glacial  lakes.     • 
Materials  —  Lake  Geneva  (Wis.)  topographic  sheet. 

Locate  this  area  upon  your  United  States  map  and  compare  with  the  surrounding  country. 

What  is  the  location  of  the  terminal  moraine  belt? 

In  what  direction  does  it  extend? 
Describe  its  formation. 

How  high  is  the  moraine  southeast  of  the  White  river? 
Are  the  drainage  areas  in  this  section  well  developed? 

What  shows  this? 

Are  the  rivers  old  or  young?  Why? 

Where  are  the  largest  swamp  areas? 

Trace  the  moraines  that  make  the  northern  and  northeastern  shores  of  Lake  Geneva. 
Describe  the  formation  and  location  of  Lake  Como. 


Explain  the  location  of  the  city  at  the  head  of  Lake  Geneva. 

Why  are  there  no  lakes  along  Como  creek? 

Will  Lake  Como  grow  smaller  or  larger?  Why? 

What  would  be  the  boundaries  of  Ryan  lake  if  it  filled  its  valley? 


52 


31  —  Niagara  Falls 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  topography  of  the  Niagara  Falls. 
Materials. —  Niagara  river  and  vicinity  topographic  sheet  (1901). 


Locate  the  Niagara  river  upon  your  United  States  map. 
How  long  is  this  river? 
What  is  its  vertical  descent? 
Between  what  points  is  the  river  navigable? 

Between  what  countries  does  its  main  channel  form  a  boundary? 

Locate  the  two  plains  that  the  Niagara  crosses  and  study  their  general  formation. 
What  is  the  average  height  of  the  upper  plain? 
In  what  direction  does  it  slope? 
What  is  the  average  height  of  the  lower  plain? 
In  what  direction  does  it  slope? 

Locate  the  Niagara  escarpment. 
What  is  its  elevation? 
Where  does  the  escarpment  divide  into  sections? 

What  is  the  height  of  each  section? 

Describe  the  river  from  Buffalo  to  Goat  island. 


Describe  the  river  from  the  escarpment  to  Lake  Ontario. 


Locate  the  falls  of  the  Niagara. 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  Canadian  falls? 

63 


What  is  the  shape  of  the  American  falls? 

Which  is  the  larger? 

Over  which  is  the  river  the  more  actively  eroding  its  bed? 

Why? 


Where  were  the  falls  originally? 

How  far  is  it  from  the  escarpment  to  the  present  falls? 

If  the  falls  recede  five  feet  a  year,  how  long  has  it  taken  Niagara  to  reach  its'^  present 
position? 


What  part  of  this  river  forms  the  gorge? 
Describe   it. 


Where  is  the  whirlpool? 

Describe  its  shape  and  formation. 


What  change  happens  to  the  river  below  Lewiston? 

What  is  its  fall  from  there  to  Lake  Ontario? 

Compare  this  fall  to  the  fall  in  the  gorge.    (See  profile  diagram,  lesson  18.) 

In  what  direction  do  the  rivers  flow  in  the  lower  plain? 

In  the   upper  plain? 

Are  there  any  evidences  of  former  glacial  activities  to  be  found  in  this  section? 


Trace  the  ridge  road  from  Lewiston  to  Dickersonville. 
Along  what  elevation  does  this  road  travel? 


Trace  the  road  from  Lewiston  to  Pekin. 
Where  is  it  the  steepest? 
What  is  the  difference  in  elevation  between  Lewiston  and  Pekin? 


Tell  something  of  the  new  industry  that  is  being  developed  at  the  Niagara  Falls. 


54 


32  —  Glaciers 

Purpose  —  To  study  glacial  structure. 

Materials  —  Shasta  (Cal.)  special  topographic  sheet. 


Locate  this  section  upon  your  United  States  map. 
In  what  part  of  California  is  Mt.  Shasta? 
How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  the  other  mountains  surrounding  it? 

How  high  is  this  mountain? 

How  many  glaciers  are  there  upon  the  mountain? 

Where  are  they  located? 


Trace  the  boundaries  of  each  glacial  valley. 
Describe  the  general  shape  of  each  glacier. 


Why  are  there  no  glaciers  upon  the  mountain  top?  Explain  fully. 


How  far  down  the  mountain  side  do  these  ice  sheets  extend? 
What  is  the  elevation  of  the  foot  of  the  southern  glacier? 
Is  this  elevation  the  same  for  all  the  glaciers? 
Why  do  not  the  glaciers  extend  farther  down  the  valleys? 


Describe  the  terminal  moraines. 

How  are  the  lateral  moraines  indicated  upon  the  map? 

Are  there  any  other  glaciers  upon  this  map  beside  those  on  Shasta?  Why  not? 

Trace  the  drainage  areas  about  Shasta. 
Where  do  the  rivers  get  their  water? 
Do  they  rise  above  or  below  the  moraines?  Why? 

Do  you  find  evidences  of  former  ice  sheets? 


55 


33  —  Glacial  Effects 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  local  effects  of  ice  sheets. 

Materials  —  Glacial  pebbles  and  rocks,  some  soil  from  a  till  bank. 


Field  work  —  Glacial  features  should  be  studied  in  the  field  if  possible.  Photographs  and  pictures 
of  glaciated  areas  may  be  obtained  easily  for  class-room  work  and  should  be  used  wherever 
outdoor  work  is  impossible. 


Illustrate  by  means  of  a  diagram  the  method  used  in  determining  the  movement  of  a  glacier. 
Explain  how  glaciers  "  flow." 


Compare  the  glacial  pebbles  with  those  found  in  a  river  bed.    With  those  found  embedded  in  the 
soil. 


What  are  the  striae  upon  the  glaciated  rocks? 

In  what  direction  does  the  striae  extend?  Why? 

Describe  a  drumlin.  A  kame.  An  esker. 


Of  what  kind  of  clay  is  till  composed? 

Where  are  till  formations  found? 

Are  such  formations  stratified? 

Would  water  form  till?  Would  wind?  Why? 

Describe  any  other  glaciated  formations  found  about  your  home. 


56 


34  —  Ice  Sheets 


Purpose  —  To  locate  the  ice  sheet  of  North  America. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils. 


Sketch  lightly  the  outline  of  the  ice  sheet  of  North  America.     Color  the  sheet  green  with  the 
colored  pencil.     Indicate  the  moraines  with  a  brown  pencil. 

57 


35  — The  Ocean 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  ocean. 

Materials  —  Small  globe,  colored  pencils,  ruler,  pencil. 


Which  of  the  hemispheres  of  the  globe  may  be  called  the  water  hemisphere?  Which 

the  land  hemisphere? 
What  proportion  of  the  earth's  surface  is  water? 
What  proportion  is  land? 
If  the  water  covers  143,259,000  square  miles  of  the  earth's  surface,  how  inuch  does  the 

land  cover? 

On  the  cross-section  paper  represent  the  water  area  by  letting  each  large  square  represent  20,- 
000,000  square  miles.  Color  this  area  blue.  With  the  same  scale  represent  the  land  area. 
Color  this  area  brown. 

Compare  these  areas  with  the  land  and  water  areas  as  shown  on  your  globe. 

Upon  what  parallel  of  latitude  could  the  earth  be  circumnavigated  by  a  sailing  vessel? 
Could  the  earth  be  circumnavigated  along  any  meridian? 

Upon  what  meridian  could  you  sail  from  Iceland  to  the  Antarctic  continent. 
What  kind  of  a  line  would  represent  the  shortest  distance  on  your  globe  between  Valparaiso 
(Chile)  and  Yokohama  (Japan)? 

Between  Queenstown  and  New  York? 

What  kind  of  lines  would  these  be  upon  the  Mercator  map? 
Draw  these  lines  upon  the  Mercator  map  and  name  the  different  divisions  of  the  ocean  crossed. 
Place  the  names  of  the  other  parts  of  the  ocean  upon  this  map. 
Which  of  these  ocean  divisions  is  the  largest? 
Which  is  the  smallest? 
Which  is  the  most  regular  in  shape? 
Which  takes  the  form  of  the  letter  S? 

With  a  scale  of  1  inch  to  represent  10,000,000  square  miles,  draw  lines  to  show  the  comparative 
areas  of  the  oceans. 

Table  of  comparative  areas.  (These  figures  are  approximate  areas.) 

Pacific  ocean 71,000,000  square  miles. 

Atlantic  ocean 34,000,000      "  " 

Indian  ocean 27,000,000      "  " 

Arctic  ocean 7,259,000      "  " 

Antarctic  ocean 4,000,000      "  " 

58 


On  the  cross-section  paper  construct  a  profile  of  the  North  Atlantic  ocean  from  the  following 
table.    (Taken  along  the  40th  parallel.) 

Distance  from  American  shore.  Depth  of  water. 

Miles.  Feet. 

0 0 

200 650 

350 6,500 

900 20,000 

1,100 21,000 

2,125 13,000 

2,500 6,500 

3,000 15,000 

3,350 6,500 

3,425 660 

3,500 0 

Indicate  upon  this  profile  the  two  continental  shelves  and  the  mid-Atlantic  ridge. 


Construct  a  profile  of  the  continental  shelf  east  from  Atlantic  City,  New  Jersey. 

Distance  from  the  American  shore.  Depth  of  water. 

Miles.  Feet. 

0 0 

20 15 

30 25 

40 20 

60  . 40 

75 100 

85 500 

90 1,000 

100 1,300 


59 


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36 —  Composition  of  Sea  Water 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  composition  of  sea  water. 

Materials  —  Fresh  water,  some  sea  water,  scales,  compass,  ruler,  pencil. 


Note  —  If  sea  water  cannot  be  obtained,  a  fairly  good  substitute  may  be  made  by  dissolving 
1%  lbs.  of  salt  in  50  lbs.  of  water.    But  sea  water  should  be  obtained  if  possible. 

What  difference  do  you  notice  in  taste  between  the  two  waters? 

Is  the  sea  water  bitter  to  the  taste  as  well  as  salty?    (If  sea  water  is  not  obtainable  this 
question  cannot  be  answered.) 

What  difference  is  there  in  unit  weight? 
What  then  is  the  density  of  salt  water? 
Which  is  the  more  buoyant,  salt  or  fresh  water? 
Why? 

What  effect  upon  the  color  of  the  water  has  the  mineral  matter  in  it? 


Draw  a  circle  and  divide  it  into  segments  to  represent  the  proportion  of  fresh  water  and  of  mineral 
matter  in  sea  water. 


From  the  following  table  construct  a  circle  and  divide  it  into  segments  to  represent  the  propor- 
tions of  the  various  mineral  substances  found  in  sea  water. 

Sodium  chloride 77.758% 

Magnesium  chloride 10.878% 

Magnesium  sulfate 4.737% 

Calcium  sulfate , 3.600% 

Potassium  sulfate 2.465% 

Calcium  carbonate .345% 

Magnesium  bromide .217% 

100.000 
62 


Where  does  the  mineral  matter  come  from  that  is  in  sea  water? 
Where  do  the  rivers  get  these  mineral  substances? 


Is  the  water  of  rivers  fresh  or  salt? 
Why  do  we  not  taste  this  salt? 

Describe  a  way  whereby  we  can  get  salt  from  sea  water. 


Where  are  some  of  the  large  deposits  of  salt  found  in  the  United  States? 


Account  in  a  brief  way  for  the  location  of  these  deposits. 


63 


87  —  Ocean  Temperatures 

Purpose  —  To  study  ocean  temperatures. 

Materials  —  Chart  to  show  mean  annual  surface  temperatures  of  the  ocean,  ruler,  pencil. 


What  is  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  equatorial  region? 

Compare  the  width  of  this  belt  in  the  Atlantic  ocean  with  that  in  the  Indian  ocean.    Ac- 
count for  any  differences  you  find. 


What  causes  the  Red  Sea  to  be  so  warm? 

Where  are  the  inequalities  in  the  ocean  heat  belts  the  greatest,  in  the  northern  or  southern 
hemisphere? 

Where  do  you  find  the  lowest  annual  temperatures  recorded? 

Compare  the  annual  ranges  of  temperature  between  the  land  and  the  water.    (Select  the 
40th  parallel  for  this  comparison.) 


Where  would  you  expect  to  find  the  greater  extremes?  Why? 

On  the  cross-section  paper  construct  a  curve  showing  the  decrease  of  ocean  temperature 
with  the  increase  of  depth. 

Report  of  Challenger,  33^  degrees  south  of  the  equator: 

Surface 78.0  Degrees,  F. 

270  feet  deep 68.0 

960     "       '' 50.0 

1,920     "       "      41.0' 

9,000     "       "      36.5 

15,200     "       "      33.0 

Report  of  Challenger,  latitude  42-32  S.,  longitude  56-27  W.: 

The  temperature  curve  where  the  ocean  water  is  affected  by  the  Antarctic  current.    (Locate 
temperature  area.) 

Surface 57.0  Degrees,  F. 

600  feet  deep 36.5 

3,000     "       "      35.6 

6,000     "       "      .    .    .    .- 35.0 

9,000     "       "      34.7 

64 


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38  —  Ocean  Currents 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  location  and  direction  of  the  ocean  currents. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils,  wind  zone  map. 

On  the  Mercator  map  indicate  the  equatorial  currents  with  small  green  colored  arrows.  (The- 
arrows  to  point  in  the  direction  in  which  the  current  flows.)  Indicate  the  Gulf  Stream  with 
red  arrows  and  the  Canary  current  with  blue  arrows. 

In  the  Pacific,  indicate  the  Kuroshiwo  with  brown  arrows  and  the  California  current  with  purple 
arrows.    Write  the  names  of  these  currents  in  their  proper  places. 

Do  the  same  with  the  southern  hemisphere  currents. 

Indicate  all  Arctic  and  Antarctic  currents  in  black. 

In  what  general  direction  do  the  currents  flow  along  the  equator? 

What  causes  the  flow  of  sea  water? 

Give  two  factors  that  influence  the  direction  of  flow? 

Compare  the  map  you  have  made  with  the  wind  zone  map. 
What  relations  do  you  find  between  them? 

Have  coast  irregularities  the  same  effect  upon  wind  currents  that  they  have  upon  the- 
water  currents? 

Describe  the  Gulf  Stream  drift. 

What  irregularities  do  you  note  in  the  Monsoon  drift? 

Account  for  these  irregularities. 

What  seasonal  changes  are  there  in  this  current? 

Locate  five  ocean  areas  that  have  no  current. 

Give  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  their  centers. 

Which  currents  or  drifts  will  have  a  warming  influence  upon  climate? 

Which  a  cooling  influence? 

66 


67 


39  —  Sargasso  Seas 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  sargasso  seas. 

Materials  —  Map  of  the  world  showing  the  sargasso  seas. 

« 

Upon  the  world  map  in  exercise  38,  mark  the  areas  that  have  the  sargasso  formation. 
Write  a  short  account  of  the  formation  of  the  sargasso  seas. 


Describe  the  experience  that  Columbus  had  in  crossing  one  of  these  sargasso  seas. 


68 


40  —  The  Tides 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  tides. 
Materials  —  Compass,  ruler,  pencil. 

Give  in  a  few  concise  words  the  causes  of  tides. 


Represent  diagrammatically  the  relative  positions  of  the  sun,  moon  and  earth  for  Spring  tides 
and  for  Neap  tides. 


When  is  there  the  highest  tide? 

When  is  there  the  lowest  tide? 

What  is  the  average  time  between  tides? 
Explain  this  by  use  of  a  diagram. 


Represent  diagrammatically  the  formation  of  the  tide  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth  from 
the  moon. 


During  which  day  in  March,  1908,  was  the  tide  highest  in  Boston? 

On  which  day  was  it  lowest? 

How  much  difference  in  elevation  was  there? 

What  was  the  average  tide  in  Boston  for  this  month? 

Compare  the  high  and  low  tides  with  the  phases  of  the  moon  as  given  in  the  table. 

At  what  time  was  it  high  tide  March  8th? 

At  what  time  was  it  low  tide  March  27th? 

How  many  flood  and  ebb  tides  were  there  on  March  18th? 

Explain  this. 

69 


Construct  a  graph  of  the  Boston  tides  from  the  following  table : 

Use  the  following  measurements  on  your  cross-section  paper. 
Horizontal  scale,  1  large  square  to  every  12  hrs.  time. 
Vertical  scale,  1  small  square  to  every  foot. 


TIDES    AT   BOSTON,  MASS.,  MARCH,  1908 


c 

Day  of- 

^ 

W. 

Mo. 

p 

S 

1 

• 

M 

2 

Tu 

3 

E 

W 

4 

Th 

5 

F 

6 

S 

7 

s 

8 

D 

M 

9 

Tu 

10 

N 

W 

11 

Th 

12 

A 

F 

13 

S 

14 

s 

15 

Time  and  Height  of  High  and 
Low  Water 


Day  of- 


W.     Mo. 


Time  and  Height  of  High  and 
Low  Water 


3.50 

— 0.  2 

4.42 

— 0.  7 

5.34 

— 1.  1 

0.14 

10.  7 

1.00 

10.  8 

1.50 

10.  7 

2.40 

10.  4 

3.30 

10.  0 

4.22 

9.  6 

5.15 

9.  2 

6.15 

8.  9 

1.00 

1.  5 

1.56 

1.  6 

2.46 

1.  4 

3.32 

1.  2 


10.00 

10.  8 
10.55 

11.  2 
11.48 
11.  3 

6.24 
— 1.  3 

7.16 
— 1.  3 

8.05 
— 1.  1 

8.56 
— 0.  7 

9.50 

— 0.  3 

10.45 

0.  2 
11.42 

0.  5 
12.35 

0.  9 

7.10 

8.  8 

8.07 

8.  8 
8.56 

9.  0 
9.44 
9.  1 


16.25 

— 1.  3 

17.16 

— 1.  6 

18.08. 
— 1.  7. 
12.38 
11.  2 
13.28 
10.  9 
14.16 
10.  4 
15.08 

9.  8 
16.00 

9.  2 
16.55 

8.  6 
17.55 

8.  1 
18.54. 

7.  9. 
13.38 

0.  9 
14.30 

0.  8 
15.19 

0.  5 
16.00 

0.  3 


22.34; 
10.  0 
23.25  O 

10.  4! 


18.50 
— 1.  6 

19.42 
— 1.  3 

20.30 
— 0.  9 

21.16 
— 0.  3 

22.10 
0.  4 

23.05 

0.  9 
23.58 

1.  3 


19.52 

7.  8 

20.45 

7.  9 
21.32 

8.  2 
22.10 

8.  5 


E 


M 

16 

Tu 

17 

W 

18 

Th 

19 

F 

20 

S 

21 

s 

22 

M 

23 

Tu 

24 

W 

25 

Th 

26 

F 

27 

S 

28 

s 

29 

M 

30 

Tu 

31 

4.15 
0.  9 
4.56 
0.  5 
5.35 

0.  2 
0.05 
9.  5 
0.40 
9.  7 
1.20 
9.  8 
2.00 
9.  7 
2.48 
9.  6 
3.36 
9.  4 
4.35 
9.  3 
5.40 
9.  3 
0.25 

1.  2 
1.35 
0.  8 
2.35 
0.  3 
3.30 

— 0.  3 

4.28 

— 0.  9 


10.24 
9.  4 

11.05 
9.  6 

11.43 

9.  8 

6.14 

0.  0 

6.55 

— 0.  2 

7.36 

—0.  2 

8.20 

— 0.  2 

9.10 

0.  0 

10.05 
0.  1 

11.05 
0.  3 

12.08 
0.  3 
6.45 
9.  4 
7.46 
9.  6 
3.48 

10.  1 
9.47 

10.  5 

10.40 

10.  8 


16.42 

0.  0 

17.18 

— 0.  2 

17.55. 

— 0.  2. 

12.20 

9.  8 
13.00 

9.  7 
13.45 

9.  5 
14.28 

9.  3 
15.17 

9.  0 
16.10 

8.  7 
17.10 

8.  4 
18.15. 

8.  4. 
13.10 

0.  1 

14.10 

— 0.  2 

15.10 

— 0.  6 

16.05 

— 1.  0 

16.55 

— 1.  2 


22.48 

8.  9 
23.25 

9.  3 


18.35 

— 0.  2 

19.15 

— 0.  1 

19.54 

0.  2 

20.38 

0.  5 

21.25 

0.  9 
22.20 

1.  1 
23.20 

1.  3 


19.20 

8.  6 
20.20 

9.  0 
21.20 

9.  5 
22.15 
10.  1 
23.05 
10.  6 


70 


Compare  the  Boston  tides  with  the  tidal  heights  given  in  the  following  table.    (These  figures  are 
for  March  1st,  1908.) :  •  ' 

TIME  AND  HEIGHT  OF  TIDE  AT  ATLANTIC  PORTS 


Time 


Height 


St.  Johns,  Newfoundland 

Halifax,  N.S 

St.  John,  N.  B 

Portland,  Me 

Newport,  R.  I 

New  London,  Conn 

Sandy  Hook,  N.  J 

Baltimore,  Md 

Washington,  D.  C 

Charleston,  S.  C 

Key  West,  Fla ! 

Galveston,  Tex 

San  Diego,  Cal 

San  Francisco,  Cal 


5.54 

3.6 

6.38 

5.3 

0.20 

24. 

9.27 

10.1 

6.18 

4.3 

8.00 

2.9 

6.20 

5.4 

5.14 

1.2 

6.50 

2.7 

6.38 

6. 

7.55 

1. 

1.10 

1.1 

8.01 

6.5 

9.55 

5.8 

Why  do  Key  West  and  Galveston  have  such  low  tides? 


Explain  the  extreme  height  of  the  St.  John  (N.  B.)  tide. 


Explain  the  difference  in  time  between  the  Key  West  and  the  Galveston  tides. 


71 


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41  —  Tidal  Formations 

Purpose  —  To  study  tidal  formations. 

Materials  —  Any  good  encyclopedia  or  text  on  physiography. 


Write  a  short  account  of  the  effects  of  tidal  waves.    (Special  reference  may  be  given  to  the  tidal 
waves  at  Galveston.) 


Write  concisely  about  tidal  bores. 


73 


42  —  Ocean  Trade  Routes 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  principal  trade  routes  of  the  world. 

Materials  —  Large  map  of  trade  routes,  colored  pencil,  ruler.    (To  designate  routes  use  different 
colored  pencils.) 


Atlantic  Ocean 

On  the  Mercator  map  represent  the  northern  and  southern  routes  between  New  York  and  Queens- 
town. 

Why  should  there  be  two  routes? 

What  atmospheric  conditions  do  vessels  encounter  off  Newfoundland? 

Why  do  so  many  routes  pass  close  to  the  island  of  Newfoundland? 

Draw  the  sailing  route  from  Liverpool  to  Rio  Janeiro.    Describe  this  route  carefully,  noting  all 
climatic  changes  and  the  ocean  currents  crossed. 


Draw  the  shortest  route  from  Southampton  to  Bombay. 
Why  is  this  called  the  inside  route? 

Draw  the  corresponding  outside  route. 

Trace  the  probable  route  of  the  Norsemen. 

What  geographic  agents  made  this  route  difficult  to  travel? 

Mark  the  southern  limit  of  the  icebergs. 

When  are  storms  most  abundant  in  the  north  Atlantic? 

Why  did  Columbus  sail  to  the  Canary  islands  and  then  westward? 


What  would  be  the  shortest  route  from  Philadelphia  to  Lisbon? 

What  sort  of  a  line  would  you  sail  along? 

Trace  a  few  main  routes  that  will  be  benefited  by  the  new  Panama  canal. 

What  effect  will  the  opening  of  this  canal  have  upon  the  trade  of  the  Southern  states? 


74 


Pacific  Ocean 

Why  is  the  largest  ocean  called  the  Pacific? 

Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

Upon  your  map  of  the  trade  routes  place  your  ruler  from  San  Francisco  and  Yokohama. 
Does  this  represent  the  sailing  route? 
Draw  this  line. 

What  kind  of  a  line  is  this  upon  the  earth's  surface? 
How  much  longer  is  this  distance  than  that  between  New  York  and  Queenstown? 

Draw  the  sailing  route  between  San  Francisco  and  Manila  by  way  of  Honolulu,  Midway  and 
Guam. 

What  current  proves  helpful  in  this  trip? 

Draw  the  sailing  route  from  Seattle  to  Auckland. 
What  currents  would  you  cross? 
What  different  temperatures  would  be  experienced? 

Trace  and  describe  the  sea  route  from  San  Francisco  to  New  York  by  way  of  Cape  Horn. 

Where  is  the  southern  limit  of  the  northern  ice  drift ^n  this  ocean? 
How  does  it  compare  with  that  of  the  Atlantic  ocean? 

Mark  the  northern  limit  of  the  southern  ice  drift. 
Where  does  it  approach  the  continents? 
Is  it  as  regular  in  outline  as  the  limit  of  the  northern  drift? 
Does  it  interfere  as  much  with  the  commercial  routes? 

Why? 

Is  the  presence  of  islands  in  the  Pacific  a  hindrance  or  a  help  to  navigation? 

Why? 

Where  are  these  islands  situated? 

Are  there  many  islands  in  the  Atlantic  valuable  for  trading  purposes? 

Sketch  the  probable  route  of  a  coast  trading  vessel  from  New  York  to  Montevideo. 


75 


76 


III.    THE  LITHOSPHERE 

43  —  Irregular  Coast  Lines 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  irregular  coast  lines. 

Materials  —  Boothbay  (Me.),  Boston  Bay  (Mass.),  Tolchester  (Md.)  topographic  sheets. 

Boothbay  (Me.)  sheet. 

Locate  this  area  upon  your  United  States  map  and  compare  it  with  the  other  sections  of  the 
Maine  coast. 

What  mountain  system  extends  across  the  state  of  Maine? 

In  what  general  direction  do  the  separate  ranges  extend  in  this  area? 

Why  is  this  coast  so  irregular? 


Trace  the  principal  hill  ranges  by  means  of  the  contour  lines. 
In  what  direction  do  they  run? 
Are  they  continuous  or  isolated  hills? 
What  is  the  contour  interval? 

What  is  the  highest  elevation  upon  the  island  of  Westport? 

How  many  of  these  hills  are  there? 

What  is  the  height  of  Mt.  Pisgah? 

Is  it  any  higher  than  Big  Hill? 

Why  is  this  called  the  "  Piedmont  Section?" 


Account  for  the  swamp  formation  west  of  Griffith  Head. 


Explain  the  formation  of  "  The  Gut  "  just  north  of  Rutherford  island. 


Why  is  the  anchorage  in  Boothbay  Harbor  better  than  that  at  East  Boothbay? 


77 


Explain  how  the  locations  of  the  lighthouses  help  vessels  to  enter  Boothbay  Harbor. 


In  what  general  direction  do  the  bays  extend? 
What  is  the  age  of  the  topography  of  this  section? 
Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 


Are  the  shores  steep  or  low? 

Are  they  rocky  or  sandy? 

Will  the  water  off-shore  be  deep  or  shallow? 

Why  is  this  called  a  "  drowned  coast?" 


Why  are  there  no  large  cities  along  this  coast? 

What  are  the  occupations  of  the  people  who  live  in  this  area? 

On  cross-section  paper,  draw  a  profile  along  the  line  from  Burnt  island  light  to  Hendrick  Head 
light. 

Boston  Bay  (Mass.)  sheet. 

Locate  this  section  upon  a  map  of  the  state  of  Massachusetts. 
Is  this  coast  similar  to  that  studied  in  the  Boothbay  sheet? 
What  are  Nahant  and  Little  Nahant? 
Describe  how  they  have  become  tied  to  the  mainland. 


What  kind  of  land  formation  is  Lynn  Beach? 

What  evidences  do  you  find  that  Nahant  is  of  rock  formation? 


What  is  the  elevation  of  the  highest  point  in  Nahant? 

How  does  this  compare  with  the  elevation  northwest  of  Lynn? 


78 


What  kind  of  shore  formation  is  west  of  Point  of  Pines? 

What  geographic  agent  has  helped  to  make  the  strip  of  beaches  from  Crescent  Beach  to 
Point  of  Pines? 

Why  is  not  the  city  of  Lynn  a  large  shipping  center? 

Which  body  of  water  is  more  likely  to  be  affected  by  ocean  storms,  Nahant  bay  or  Lynn 

harbor? 
Why? 

Compare  this  area  with  a  map  of  Boston  harbor. 


Tolchester  (Md.)  sheet. 

Locate  this  section  upon  your  United  States  map  and  carefully  study  the  othe^  sections 

of  Chesapeake  bay. 
What  evidences  do  you  find  that  this  bay  is  a  large  drowned  valley? 


Trace  the  main  stream  and  its  tributaries  through  this  bay. 
Describe  briefly  the  general  form  of  this  drowned  river  valley. 


What  protection  does  it  have  from  the  action  of  ocean  storms  and  waves? 

Trace  the  lower  valley  of  the  Gunpowder  river. 
How  long  is  it? 
How  wide  is  it? 
In  what  direction  does  it  extend? 

Trace  the  coast  plain  that  lies  west  of  this  arm  of  the  Chesapeake. 
How  wide  is  it  at  its  widest  part? 
What  is  its  average  elevation? 
Is  this  a  rocky  coast?  Why? 

Why  are  there  so  many  marsh  formations? 

Describe  the  topography  west  of  the  Philadelphia,  Wilmington  and^Delaware'railroad. 

Explain  the  formation  of  Spesutie  island. 
On  the  cross-section  paper  draw  a  profile  from  Robins  Point  to  Edgewood. 

79 


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44  —  Regular  Coast  Lines 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  regular  coast  lines. 

Materials  —  Sea  Isle  (N.  J.),  Provincetown  (Mass.),  Wellfleet  (Mass.),  Talmalpais  (Cal.),  Ocean- 
side  (Cal.)  topographic  sheets. 


Sea  Isle  (N.  J.)  sheet. 

In  which  physiographic  division  of  the  United  States  is  this  area  located? 

Is  this  a  submerged  or  an  elevated  section? 
Why? 

Describe  the  drainage  areas. 

What  geographic  agent  caused  the  formation  of  the  beaches? 

Is  this  coast  line  old  or  young? 

What  will  be  the  history  of  the  swamp  land  back  of  these  beaches? 

Is  Ludlam  bay  salt  or  fresh? 

How  will  the  tides  affect  this  section? 

How  many  life-saving  stations  are  there? 
Where  are  they  located? 

Of  what  use  are  they? 

Why  are  there  no  lighthouses  along  this  coast? 

Will  the  sea  water  be  deep  or  shallow  off  this  coast  line? 
What  will  be  the  nature  of  the  continental  shelf  in  this  region? 

Describe  the  old  coast  line  before  the  beaches  were  formed. 


Provincetown  (Mass.)  and  Wellfleet  (Mass.)  sheets. 

What  form  has  the  land  in  this  area? 
What  name  is  given  to  this  form? 
What  has  caused  this  form? 

81 


How  was  Long  Point  built? 


Is  this  formation  a  protection  to  Provincetown  harbor? 
What  is  the  nature  of  the  soil  of  Cape  Cod? 

What  kind  of  vegetation  will  grow  there? 
What  and  where  is  its  greatest  elevation? 
Describe  its  drainage  areas. 


Are  these  old  or  young? 

Are  there  many  tributary  streams? 

What  will  be  the  geographic  history  of  Race  Run? 

Of  what  use  is  Long  Point  light? 

Locate  Highland  light. 

Why  is  this  so  far  inland? 

Is  this  of  any  use  to  ocean  steamers? 

Explain  the  presence  of  the  ponds  at  the  western  end  of  Cape  Cod. 

What  evidences  does  Salt  Meadow  show  of  recent  land  formation? 


Which  side  of  Cape  Cod  will  experience  the  more  severe  storms? 
Why? 


Tamalpais  (Cal.)  and  Oceanside  (Cal.)  sheets. 

Locate  these  two  areas  and  compare  their  topographic  structure. 

Which  has  a  rugged  shore? 

Which  has  a  coastal  plain? 

In  which  are  the  drainage  systems  the  larger? 

Which  area  has  the  greater  elevation? 

Tamalpais  (Cal.)  sheet. 

In  what  direction  does  the  Polinas  ridge  extend? 

Is  it  parallel  to  the  coast? 

Why  are  there  no  large  rivers  draining  into  the  Pacific  ocean? 

82 


What  evidences  do  you  find  of  coastal  erosion? 


Where  is  the  coast  being  built  up? 
Will  this  action  make  the  coast  more  or  less  regular? 

What  effect  upon  a  coast  line  has  deposition?    (Compare  with  the  deposition  going  on  in 
the  Sea  Isle  sheet.) 

Describe  the  coastal  terraces  west  of  Bolinas  bay. 


Oceanside  (Cal.)  sheet. 

In  what  direction  do  the  drainage  systems  extend? 

What  influence  have  they  had  upon  the  coast  line? 

What  influence  has  the  coast  had  upon  the  rivers? 

What  becomes  of  the  water  in  the  rivers? 

How  does  the  salt  get  in  the  marshes? 

Where  has  deposition  shut  in  marshes  and  lagoons? 

Where  is  a  lake  being  formed? 

Describe  the  coastal  terraces. 


What  evidences  do  you  find  of  erosion? 

Where? 

What  will  be  the  history  of  this  coast? 


45  —  Lake  Shores 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  structure  of  a  lake  shore. 
Materials  —  Milwaukee  (Wis.)  quadrangle  topographic  sheet. 


Which  shore  of  Lake  Michigan  is  represented  in  this  area? 
What  kind  of  a  shore  line  has  this  lake? 


How  high  is  the  shore  cliff  above  sea  level? 
How  high  is  it  above  Lake  Michigan? 
Are  there  any  beaches  along  this  shore  line? 
Describe  this  shore  line  carefully. 


What  is  the  greatest  elevation  shown  in  this  area? 

Where  is  it  located? 

What  evidences  do  you  find  that  ice  sheets  once  covered  this  section? 


Account  for  the  direction  in  which  the  Milwaukee  river  flows. 

Is  this  an  old  or  a  young  river?  Why? 

Trace  the  divide  between  the  Menominee  and  the  Milwaukee  rivers. 

What  geographic  advantages  has  the  city  of  Milwaukee? 

How  has  man  built  an  artificial  harbor? 

Why  doesn't  the  Milwaukee  river  build  a  delta  at  its  mouth? 

Of  what  advantage  are  the  artificial  inlets  about  the  mouth  of  the  river? 


Compare  the  coast  line  in  this  area  with  those  found  along  the  shores  of  the  other  Great  Lakes  and 
those  shore  fines  in  the  sections  already  studied. 

84 


46  —  Quartz 


Purpose  —  To  learn  the  characteristics  of  quartz. 

Materials  —  Some  quartz  specimens,  dilute  HCl,  stirring  rod,  piece  of  glass,  knife.    (Type  speci- 
mens should  be  kept  for  class  comparison.) 


Note  —  The  common  minerals  of  the  earth's  surface  are  classified  as  follows:  1.  quartz  group; 
2.  feldspar  group;  3.  calcite  group;  4.  mica  group;  5.  amphibole  group;  6.  pyroxene  group;  7. 
iron  group;  8.  gypsum  group;  9.  salt  group;  10.  ice  group. 

Quartz  (silica,  Si02). 

Carefully  compare  the  individual  specimen  with  the  type  specimen. 

What  is  the  color?    (May  vary  from  transparency  to  jet  black.) 

What  is  its  luster? 

Has  the  mineral  formed  into  crystals? 

How  many  sides  has  the  quartz  crystal? 

Describe  its  general  shape. 

What  is  meant  by  amorphous? 

Name  some  varieties  of  quartz. 

Is  quartz  light  or  heavy? 
Is  it  hard  or  soft? 
Will  it  scratch  glass? 
Will  a  knife  scratch  it? 
Will  it  withstand  erosion? 

Is  it  brittle? 

In  what  shape  will  quartz  break? 

Has  it  any  cleavage? 

Test  it  with  HCl.    Is  it  chemically  strong? 

Is  quartz  soluble  in  any  substance? 

In  what  substance?  Do  we  find  this  substance  in  nature? 

How  do  plants  use  quartz? 

Where  is  quartz  found? 

How  important  is  it  in  earth  structure? 

85 


47  —  Feldspar 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  characteristics  of  feldspar. 

Materials  —  Some  feldspar  specimens,  dilute  HCl,  stirring  rod,  knife.     (Type  specimens  should 
be  kept  for  class  comparison.) 

Feldspar  (silicate  of  alumina,  Si02  and  AI2O3  with  potash,  soda  or  lime). 


What  is  the  color  of  the  feldspar  specimen  you  have? 

Does  feldspar  vary  in  color? 

What  is  its  weight? 

How  does  it  compare  with  quartz  in  this  respect? 


Is  it  as  hard  as  quartz? 
Will  it  scratch  glass? 
Will  a  knife  scratch  it? 
In  what  shape  does  it  break? 


What  are  cleavage  planes? 


Is  feldspar  crystalline  in  structure? 


What  is  kaolin? 


Where  is  feldspar  found? 


For  what  is  it  used? 


86 


48  —  Calcite 

Purpose  —  To  learn  the  characteristics  of  calcite. 

Materials  —  Specimens  of  calcite,  dilute  HCl,  stirring  rod,  knife.    (Type  specimens  should  be  kept 
for  class  comparison.) 

Calcite  (carbonate  of  lime,  CaCOs) . 

What  is  the  color  of  the  calcite  specimen  you  have? 

Does  calcite  vary  in  color? 

What  is  its  weight? 

Will  a  knife  scratch  it? 

Will  it  crumble? 

In  what  form  does  calcite  crystallize? 


Is  it  ever  amorphous? 

In  what  shape  does  it  break? 

Compare  the  broken  calcite  with  quartz  and  explain  the  difference. 


Does  it  respond  to  the  acid  test? 
Describe  the  action  fully. 


Is  calcite  soluble  in  water? 
Will  it  withstand  erosion? 
Of  what  use  is  it  to  animals? 


Where  is  calcite  found? 


Name  several  different  varieties  found  in  the  calcite  group. 


Name  a  number  of  uses  of  calcite.    (It  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  useful  minerals  in 
the  earth.) 


87 


49  — Mica 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  characteristics  of  mica. 

Materials  —  Mica  specimens,  HCl,  stirring  rod,  knife.     (Type  specimens  should  be  kept  for 
class  comparison.) 


Mica  (complex  silicates  of  alumina). 

What  variations  in  color  do  you  find? 
What  causes  these  variations? 


\ 


What  is  the  luster  of  mica? 

How  does  mica  split?  Describe  carefully. 


Is  this  a  characteristic  of  mica? 

Are  these  plates  elastic?    (Bend  them  carefully  to  see.) 


Is  mica  easily  scratched  with  a  knife? 

Can  you  scratch  it  with  your  thumb  nail? 

Do  micas  decay  easily? 

Are  there  any  insoluble  forms?    (Test  your  various  specimens  with  the  HCl.) 


Do  we  find  mica  particles  in  any  of  our  soils? 
In  what  condition  are  these  particles? 
Why  do  these  particles  glisten? 
In  what  rocks  may  mica  be  found? 
Describe  some  commercial  uses  of  mica, 


88 


50  —  Aznphibole  and  Pyroxene  Groups 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  characteristics  of  these  groups. 
Materials — Specimens  of  hornblende  and  augite. 


Note  —  The  members  of  these  groups,  complex  silicates  with  iron,  are  very  similar  in  character- 
istics and  cannot  be  told  apart  when  occurring  in  small  bits  of  rock  without  the  aid  of  a  micro- 
scope.  Specimens  from  a  labeled  collection  may  be  easily  distinguished. 


What  is  the  color  of  these  specimens? 
Do  they  appear  hard  or  soft? 
How  do  they  compare  to  quartz? 


Do  you  find  any  evidences  of  the  presence  of  iron? 


Where  do  these  minerals  occur  in  the  earth's  surface? 


How  do  they  show  the  presence  of  iron  when  decaying  in  bogs  and  clays? 


89 


51  —  iron  Group 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  characteristics  of  the  iron  group. 

Materials  —  Specimens  of  magnetite    (Fe304),   hematite    (re203),   limonite    (2Fe2033H20),  and 
pyrite  (FeS2). 

Distinguish  between  these  minerals. 

Why  are  they  called  oxides  and  sulphides  of  iron? 
What  is  the  color  of  magnetite? 

What  is  the  color  of  hematite? 

What  is  the  color  of  limonite? 

What  is  the  color  of  pyrite? 

What  evidences  do  you  find  that  magnetite  is  crystalline  in  structure? 

Hematite  is  the  most  valuable  of  our  iron  ores  in  the  United  States :  it  gives  the  red  color  to  our 
soils  and  rocks. 

Is  hematite  hard? 

Is  it  heavier  than  magnetite? 

Will  it  scratch  quartz? 

To  distinguish  these  ores,  scratch  them  upon  a  piece  of  quartz  or  rough  porcelain. 

What  is  the  color  of  the  streak  of  each  of  the  ores? 

Iron  pyrite  is  one  of  the  commonest  forms  of  iron  in  the  bed  rock. 
Is  it  hard? 

Will  it  scratch  quartz? 
Does  it  ghsten? 
What  name  is  sometimes  given  to  it? 

Locate  about  your  home  such  soil  areas  as  seem  rich  in  iron  deposits. 

Are  there  any  springs  about  your  home  that  show  the  presence  of  iron? 

Where  are  they?    (Give  their  topographic  location.) 

How  can  you  tell  when  iron  is  present  in  a  spring? 
How  can  you  tell  when  iron  is  present  in  the  soil? 
Does  it  make  the  soil  more  productive? 

90 


52  —  Gypsum  Group 

Purpose  —  To  learn  the  characteristics  of  this  group. 
Materials  —  Specimens  of  gypsum,  dilute  HCl,  stirring  rod. 

•Gypsum  (sulphate  of  lime,  CaS04  +  2H2O). 

What  is  the  color  of  gypsum? 

Is  it  soluble  in  water? 

What  effect  has  water  upon  it? 


Is  g3T)sum  as  hard  as  calcite? 

Does  it  resemble  calcite  in  any  way? 


Does  it  respond  to  the  acid  test? 
What  is  its  cleavage? 


Does  the  specimen  you  have  resemble  mica  in  its  cleavage? 
Do  all  the  varieties  of  gypsum  resemble  mica  in  this  respect? 
Are  the  thin  plates  of  the  gypsum  flexible? 


What  is  Plaster  of  Paris? 

For  what  is  it  used? 

Where  is  gypsum  found? 

Is  it  abundant  in  the  earth's  surface? 

Name  some  of  the  uses  of  the  different  varieties  of  gypsum. 


91 


53  —  The  Salt  Group 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  characteristics  of  salt. 

Materials  —  Specimens  of  common  salt,  dilute  HCl,  stirring  rod,  knife. 

Salt  (sodium  chloride,  NaCl). 

What  is  the  color  of  salt? 

What  would  change  its  natural  color? 

What  impurities  does  it  sometimes  contain? 

Describe  its  structure. 


Is  it  crystalline? 

How  does  it  crystallize? 

Is  it  hard  or  soft? 

Will  it  crumble? 

Is  it  easily  scratched? 

What  happens  when  you  scratch  it  with  a  knife? 

What  is  its  taste? 

Does  it  respond  to  the  acid  test? 

Is  it  soluble  in  water? 

How  soluble? 

What  effect  does  it  have  on  the  water? 


Of  what  use  is  it  to  animals? 

Where  is  salt  found? 

Does  it  appear  as  a  paTt  of  rock  formation? 
Where  do  we  get  salt  for  commercial  purposes? 

How  may  we  get  it  from  the  sea  water?    . 

Describe  the  different  varieties  of  salt  that  come  in  this  group. 

92 


54  —  The  Ice  Group 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  characteristics  of  ice. 

Materials  —  Ice  specimens,  dilute  HCl,  stirring  rod,  knife. 

Ice  (solid  form  of  H2O). 

What  is  its  color? 

What  impurities  would  change  this  color? 

Is  ice  crystalline  in  structure?    (Notice  the  frost  upon  the  window  in  winter.) 

Is  it  easily  scratched? 

What  are  its  cleavage  planes? 


Is  it  brittle? 

Will  ice  bend? 

What  is  the  viscous  quality  of  ice? 


What  effect  does  a  change  of  temperature  have  on  ice? 

Does  it  respond  to  the  acid  test? 

Is  it  soluble  in  cold  water  (below  32  F.)? 

Is  it  soluble  in  warm  water? 

What  three  forms  may  H2O  have? 

When  will  it  have  each  of  these  forms?    (Give  the  temperature  ranges.) 

Where  does  solid  H2O  exist? 
Where  does  Uquid  H2O  exist? 
Where  does  gaseous  H2O  exist? 

Do  we  find  ice  in  the  earth's  crust? 

Is  it  ever  found  in  rocks? 

What  part  does  H2O  play  in  the  changes  going  on  in  the  earth's  crust? 


55  —  The  Properties  of  Minerals 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  properties  of  minerals. 

Materials  —  Some  mineral  specimens,  dilute  HCl,  stirring  rod,  needle,  steel  rod.    (  A  knife  will 
do  for  this  latter.) 


Collect  several  specimens  of  minerals  such  as  quartz,  feldspar,  calcite,  common  salt,  gypsum, 
mica,  etc. 

Number  your  specimens  and  name  those  that  you  know. 


By  means  of  the  following  tests,  catalogue  your  specimens  in  the  table  given  on  the  following  page. 

Color  —  give  the  general  color  of  your  specimen. 

Structure —  (a)  fine;  (b)  coarse;  (c)  porous;  (d)  compact;  (e)  uniform;  (f)  stratified. 

Luster  —  bright  or  dull. 

Weight  —  fight,  medium,  heavy. 

Hardness—  (a)  very  soft,  may  be  scratched  by  the  thumb  nail;  (b)  soft,  may  be  scratched  with 
a  needle;  (c)  hard,  difficult  to  scratch  with  a  needle  or  steel  rod;  (d)  very  hard,  cannot  be 
scratched  with  steel. 

Cleavage  and  fracture  —  When  minerals  break  into  smooth  surfaces  or  faces,  the  planes  of  break- 
age are  called  cleavage  planes.    When  the  breakage  is  irregular,  it  is  called  a  fracture. 

Transparency —  (a)  transparent;  (b)  translucent;  (c)  opaque. 

Acid  test  —  with  stirring  rod,  place  a  drop  of  HCl  on  the  specimen. 

Record  results.    (Gas  may  be  formed  as  shown  by  the  presence  of  bubbles;  the  rock  may 
be  so  porous  that  the  acid  sinks  into  it  or  it  may  be  so  hard  that  the  acid  has  no  effect.) 

Minerals  —  The  constituents  that  form  the  rock  should  be  noted  whenever  possible.  (The 
elements  of  granite  are  easily  distinguished  and  may  be  used  as  a  type  for  study.) 

A  test  for  porosity. 


Mineral. 

Weight  dry. 

Weight  wet. 

Per  cent,  of  increase. 

H 


. 

a> 
O 

^-, 

'S 

< 

/ 

si 

9d 


56  —  The  Study  of  Rocks 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  kinds  of  rocks. 

Materials  —  Specimens  of  granite,  gneiss,  shale,  clay,  trap,  sandstone,  limestone,  iron  ore,  salt, 
coal,  slate,  marble,  one  or  two  volcanic  rocks,  dilute  HCl,  stirring  rod,  knife. 


Separate  these  specimens  according  to  general  distinguishing  features  and  study  the  color,  struc- 
ture, hardness,  etc.,  of  each  specimen. 

Opposite  the  following  list  write  the  principal  characteristics  of  each  rock. 

granite  — 

gneiss  —  / 

shale  — 

clay  — 

trap  — 

sandstone  — 

limestone  — 

iron  ore  — 

salt  — 

coal  — 

slate  — 

marble  — 

volcanic  rocks  — 

Which  of  these  are  igneous  rocks? 

Which  of  these  are  sedimentary  rocks? 

Which  of  these  are  metamorphic  rocks? 


Granite. 

Of  how  many  mineral  elements  is  granite  composed? 

Tell  their  distinguishing  differences  in  regard  to  color  and  luster. 

Does  granite  respond  to  the  acid  test? 
Will  a  knife  scratch  it? 

How  are  the  grains  arranged  in  the  specimen  you  have?     (Compare  with  the  piece  of 
gneiss.) 

Could  these  grains  have  been  collected  and  arranged  by  water? 

Will  granite  withstand  erosion? 

96 


Limestone. 

Describe  the  structure  of  limestone. 

Describe  the  action  of  HCl  on  limestone. 

Will  a  knife  scratch  this  specimen? 
How  are  the  grains  arranged? 

Could  water  have  aided  in  arranging  these  grains? 

Do  you  find  any  fragments  of  rocks  or  shells  in  your  specimen? 


Marble. 


Describe  the  structure  of  this  rock. 

Does  it  respond  to  the  acid  test. 
Describe  the  action  of  the  HCl. 


Is  the  marble  as  hard  as  the  limestone? 

Will  a  knife  scratch  it? 

Do  you  find  any  evidences  that  marble  was  once  limestone? 

Did  water  aid  in  forming  this  rock? 

What  other  agent  was  needed  to  make  marble? 

In  the  following  tables  classify  your  specimens. 
Classification  of  igneous  rocks. 


Eruptive  or  volcanic. 


Acid  rocks, 
with  quartz.         I     without  quartz. 


Intermediate  rocks. 


Basic  rocks. 


Abyssal  or  intrusive. 


Write  the  name  of  your  specimen  in  its  proper  place. 

97 


Classification  of  sedimentary  rocks. 

Fragmental. 

Chemically  precipitated. 

Organic. 

Coarse  grained. 

Intermediate  grained. 

Fine  grained. 

Write  the  name  of  your  specimen  in  its  proper  place. 


Classification  of  metamorphic  rocks. 


Name  of  rock. 


Nature  of 
metamorphism. 


Kind  of  rock. 


Source. 


Write  the  name  of  your  specimen  in  its  proper  column  and  fill  out  the  others  as  designated. 


57  — TheSoU 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  soil. 

Materials  —  Samples  from  loam,  clay,  gravel,  sand,  dilute  HCl,  stirring  rod,  piece  of  glass,  hand 
magnifier,  scales,  four  lamp  chimneys,  four  pans. 


Field  work  —  A  careful  study  of  soil  formation  should  be  made  in  the  field.  An  exposed  cliff 
where  the  underlying  rock  shows  will  form  a  good  type  for  study.  Notice  the  gradual  breaking- 
up  of  the  rock  to  form  the  top  soil.  Distinguish  between  top  soil,  subsoil,  and  solid  rock.  Trace 
the  zone  of  plant  growth  and  notice  how  the  roots  of  plants  and  grasses  penetrate  the  soil. 
Collect  samples  of  each  kind  of  soil  for  class-room  work.  As  much  work  as  possible  should  be 
done  in  the  field. 

Place  some  samples  of  the  different  soils  collected  upon  the  piece  of  glass  and  study  them  with 
the  hand  magnifier. 

What  is  the  general  color  of  each  of  these  samples? 

What  gives  each  its  color? 

Which  of  these  samples  contains  the  largest  particles? 
What  is  the  shape  of  these  particles? 
Describe  them  carefully. 


What  are  they? 


Do  you  find  any  coarse  grains  in  the  loamy  soil? 
Do  you  find  any  evidences  of  root  or  leaf  particles? 
Why  should  they  be  there? 

Do  you  find  these  in  the  sandy  soil? 
Why  not? 


Which  of  these  specimens  is  the  more  gritty? 

Which  will  scratch  glass? 

Of  what  are  these  particles  composed? 


Test  each  of  these  specimens  with  HCl  and  record  the  results. 


Weigh  each  of  the  four  specimens  carefully  and  record  the  results  in  the  table  below. 


Weight. 


Weight  dry. 


Weight  wet. 


loam 
clay 
sand 
gravel 


Dry  each  sample  over  a  lamp  and  weigh  again.     Record  results. 

Place  each  sample  in  a  pan  and  cover  with  water:  allow  them  to  stand  a  few  hours.    Drain  off 
the  water  and  weigh  the  samples.    Record  the  results. 

Which  soil  is  heaviest  in  its  natural  condition? 
Which  soil  is  heaviest  when  dried? 
Which  soil  absorbs  the  most  moisture? 


To  determine  the  porosity  of  soils. 

Cover  the  narrow  ends  of  four  lamp  chimneys  with  thin  cheese  cloth.  Fill  the  chimneys 
two-thirds  full  of  each  of  the  four  specimens  you  have  collected.  Place  these  chimneys 
in  a  stand  so  that  they  may  be  supported  above  drip-pans,  the  cloth  end  downward. 
Fill  the  remaining  part  of  the  chimneys  with  water. 

Which  of  the  four  soils  allows  the  water  to  pass  through  it? 

Which  retains  the  most  water? 

What  percentage  of  water  is  retained  by  each? 


Which  would  be  called  heavy  soil? 

Which  would  be  called  light  soil? 

Which  would  be  the  best  soil  for  plant  growth? 

Why? 


Which  soil  would  move  the  easiest?  Why? 

Has  the  water  changed  the  color  of  the  soil  any? 

Which  specimen  would  allow  air  to  enter  readily? 
Why?     (Explain  this  fully.) 


100 


Mix  several  of  these  specimens  and  repeat  the  experiment. 

Record  the  several  results  below  adding  such  explanations  as  you  think  best. 


Name  all  the  different  kinds  of  soil  you  know  and  tell  their  principal  characteristics. 


What  name  do  we  give  to  soil  that  occurs  in  the  place  of  the  original  rocks? 
Locate  such  soil  about  your  home. 


What  name  do  we  give  to  soils  that  have  been  moved  from  their  original  home? 
Locate  such  soils  about  your  home. 


Name  and  describe  the  three  kinds  of  soil  that  have  been  moved  from  their  place  of 
formation. 


101 


58  —  The  Geologic  Cycle 

Write  a  short  account  of  the  geologic  cycle. 


Explain  the  life  growth  of  some  physiographic  formation  near  your  home. 


102 


59  —  Volcanic  Formations 

Purpose  —  To  study  volcanic  formations. 

Materials  —  Marysville  (Cal.)  folio,  Lassen  Park  (Cal.),  Shasta  special  (Cal.)  topographic  sheets. 

Marysville  (Cal.)  folio. 

What  is  the  average  elevation  of  the  plain  upon  which  the  Marysville  buttes  are  built? 

What  is  the  highest  elevation  in  this  area? 

Do  you  find  any  volcanic  cones? 

What  evidences  do  you  find  that  these  buttes  were  formed  by  lava  intrusion? 


Explain  the  formation  of  the  igneous  rock. 

Account  for  the  sedimentary  rock  area  west  of  the  121-50  meridian. 

Where  has  erosion  taken  place  the  most  extensively? 

Describe  the  streams  that  descend  from  these  buttes. 

Which  part  of  the  profile  section  represents  the  volcanic  necks? 
Which  part  shows  surface  lava  that  has  been  intruded? 


Lassen  Park  (Cal.)  sheet. 

What  evidences  do  you  find  that  this  is  a  volcanic  area? 


What  is  the  height  of  Crater  peak? 

Does  this  peak  show  evidences  of  erosion? 

Describe  the  topography  of  the  southwest  section  of  this  area. 


103 


/  Why  are  there  so  many  lakes  in  this  area? 

Are  these  lakes  salt  or  fresh? 
Describe  the  outlet  to  Lake  Bidwell. 


Are  the  river  systems  young  or  old?  Why? 


Which  part  of  this  area  is  comparatively  level? 
Is  this  a  lava  plain? 

Describe  the  elevation  at  the  eastern  border  of  this  area.      (Compare  with  Crater  lake 
topographic  sheet.) 


Has  this  elevation  been  eroded? 

What  evidences  does  this  elevation  show  of  volcanic  origin? 


On  cross-section  paper  draw  a  profile  of  this  elevation. 

Locate  Lassen  peak.    How  high  is  it? 

Is  this  of  volcanic  origin? 

Is  it  snow  covered?  Why? 

Was  this  ever  an  active  volcano?  Why? 


Shasta  special  (Cal.)  sheet. 

What  is  the  elevation  of  Shasta  above  sea  level? 

Above  the  town  of  Sissons? 

Is  Shasta  snow  covered? 

What  evidences  do  you  find  that  this  was  once  an  active  volcano? 

Locate  the  lava  flows. 
How  was  Shasta  built? 

Where  was  the  main  cone  of  Shasta? 

Locate  the  secondary  cones. 

Were  any  of  these  cones  ever  active?  Why? 

How  was  Shastina  built? 

Is  this  a  steep  or  low  cone? 

Upon  which  side  of  Shasta  has  erosion  taken  place  the  most  rapidly? 

Where  do  the  rivers  on  the  east  side  obtain  their  water? 

What  is  the  elevation  of  their  source? 

104 


Describe  fully  the  drainage  system  known  as  Inconstance  creek. 


Why  do  so  many  creeks  about  Shasta  disappear? 

Where  are  the  roadways  located? 
Describe  the  trails. 


What  products  will  man  obtain  from  this  mountain? 


Is  Shasta  an  old  mountain?    (Give  your  reasons  for  this  answer.) 


Where  will  you  be  likely  to  find  igneous  rock? 


Which  part  of  this  area  will  be  composed  of  sedimentary  rock? 


Using  the  heavier  contour  lines  for  guides,  draw  a  profile  of  Mud  creek  upon  the  cross-section 
paper. 

Draw  a  profile  from  Shasta  to  Shastina. 


105 


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106 


60  —  Laccolites 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  structure  of  laccolites. 
Materials  —  Pencil,  ruler. 

Draw  a  sectional  view  of  a  laccolite  as  first  formed. 


Draw  a  sectional  view  of  the  above  laccolite  after  erosion  has  taken  place. 


107 


61  —  Distribution  of  Volcanoes 

Locate  the  Pacific  volcanic  area  in  red,  the  Atlantic  area  in  blue,  and  the  Mediterranean  area  in 
green.    Interior  volcanoes  may  be  located  in  brown. 


62  —  Earthquakes 

Describe  the  causes  and  movements  of  earthquakes. 


Write  a  short  description  of  the  Charleston  earthquake. 


109 


63  —  Distribution  of  Earthquakes 

Locate  the  areas  most  susceptible  to  earthquake  actions. 


64  — Plains 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  structure  of  interior  plains. 


Materials  —  White  Bear  (Minn.)  quadrangle,  Evansville  (Wis.)  quadrangle,  Caldwell  (Kan.) 
topographic  sheets.  | 


White  Bear  (Minn.)  quadrangle  sheet. 

Locate  this  area  upon  your  United  States  map. 

Is  this  section  included  in  the  glaciated  area  of  North  America? 

What  evidences  do  you  find  of  glacial  action? 

What  is  the  highest  elevation  of  this  plain? 
What  is  the  lowest  elevation? 
Explain  the  presence  of  lakes. 


Are  there  any  large  rivers?  Why  not? 

Where  is  the  great  marsh  section? 
Of  what  use  are  the  ditches? 


For  what  will  this  land  be  used  in  the  future? 

Account  for  the  marsh  formation  between  Wilkinson  and  Pleasant  lakes. 


Is  this  the  remains  of  an  older  lake? 

Find  other  evidences  that  some  of  the  lakes  in  this  area  have  decreased  in  size. 

To  what  drainage  system  will  this  section  belong? 

What  is  the  direction  of  its  drainage  outlet? 

Describe  Rice  creek. 


Where  does  the  city  of  Minneapolis  get  its  drinking  water? 

What  supplies  this  reservoir  with  water? 
What  will  be  the  future  history  of  this  area? 


Evansville  (Wis.)  quadrangle  sheet. 

Locate  this  area. 

Which  represents  the  older  developed  area,  this  or  the  former  sheet? 

Ill 


In  which  do  you  find  the  greater  number  of  lakes? 

In  which  are  the  marshes  larger? 

Which  has  the  better  developed  rivers? 

What  evidences  of  erosion  do  you  find  in  this  sheet? 

Trace  the  outline  of  the  former  marshes  about  Sugar  river. 
What  contour  fine  represents  their  borders? 
What  kind  of  a  stream  is  Sugar  river? 
What  work  is  it  doing? 

What  is  the  average  altitude  of  this  area? 

Is  it  a  rugged  or  a  rolling  country? 

Is  it  well  adapted  to  agriculture?  Why? 

What  is  the  nature  of  its  soil? 

Are  the  roadways  well  developed? 

In  what  general  direction  do  they  extend? 

Why  are  they  able  to  do  this? 

Why  are  there  no  trails  in  this  section? 

Caldwell  (Kan.)  sheet. 

Compare  this  area  with  those  of  the  preceding  two  sheets. 

What  is  the  greatest  elevation? 

What  is  the  least  elevation? 

Have  the  rivers  eroded  this  plain? 

Compare  the  rivers  found  in  this  sheet  with  those  of  the  other  two  sheets. 

Does  this  sheet  show  greater  age  than  the  other  two? 
Explain  this  fully. 

Why  are  there  no  lakes  or  marshes  present? 

Is  this  rough  or  rolling  land? 

Are  there  any  high  mountains? 

Are  there  any  deep  valleys? 

Describe  the  roadbed  of  the  Missouri  Pacific  railroad. 

How  do  the  roadways  run? 

Is  this  regularity  unusual? 

In  what  kind  of  country  would  such  roads  be  found? 

What  will  be  the  industries  of  this  section? 

Are  there  good  shipping  points  here? 

Explain  the  growth  of  Caldwell. 

Compare  these  areas  with  other  plains  found  in  the  United  States. 

112 


65  —  Low  Coastal  Plains 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  a  low  coastal  plain. 

Materials  —  Atlantic  City  (N.  J.),  Sandy  Hook  (N.  J.  -  N.  Y.)  topographic  sheets. 

Atlantic  City  (N.  J.)  sheet. 

Locate  this  area  upon  your  United  States  map. 
What  part  of  the  United  States  coast  is  this? 

In  what  physiographic  area  of  the  United  States  is  this? 

What  is  the  scale  of  this  map? 
What  is  the  contour  interval? 
Where  is  the  highest  part  of  this  area? 
What  is  the  average  elevation? 
Trace  the  old  coast  line. 
Where  are  the  sand  bars? 

What  agent  helped  to  build  these  bars? 

Are  they  being  enlarged  or  destroyed?  Why? 

How  far  is  it  from  the  northern  life-saving  station  on  Brigantine  beach  to  Somersville 

point? 
What  is  the  nature  of  the  land  inside  the  bars? 

Will  this  land  ever  become  a  part  of  the  coastal  plain? 
When? 

What  kind  of  marshes  are  these? 

Are  they  affected  by  the  tides? 

Are  the  inland  bays  navigable? 

Where  do  you  find  evidences  that  the  marsh  land  is  drying  up? 

Will  this  marsh  land  ever  assume  the  topography  of  the  section  around  Conoverville? 

What  will  drain  the  inland  bays? 

How  do  the  railroads  get  from  the  mainland  to  the  outer  bars? 

Why  is  Atlantic  City  so  large  a  place? 

What  natural  advantages  has  it? 

What  is  its  elevation? 

Is  it  in  danger  from  high  tides? 

Of  what  use  is  Absecon  light? 

113 


Sandy  Hook  (N.  J.  -  N.  Y.)  sheet. 

Locate  this  area  in  reference  to  the  one  just  studied. 

Why  is  the  coast  line  so  much  more  regular  than  that  in  the  Boothbay  sheet? 


How  is  the  ocean  making  the  coast  line  regular? 

Where  on  this  coast  do  you  find  sea-cliffs? 

Are  the  Navesink  and  Shrewsbury,  estuaries  or  rivers? 
What  was  the  probable  cause  of  this  formation? 

What  evidences  do  you  find  of  new  land  being  formed  about  the  Shrewsbury  river? 

How  is  this  being  formed? 


Are  the  drainage  systems  young  or  old? 
Explain  the  formation  of  Sandy  Hook. 


Why  does  this  hook  turn  westward? 

What  effect  has  the  wind  had  on  the  formation  of  the  hook? 


In  what  shape  are  the  dunes?  Why? 

Of  what  use  are  the  lights  and  the  beacons? 
What  vessels  will  make  use  of  these? 

What  are  the  Highlands  of  Navesink? 


What  is  their  greatest  altitude? 
Where  do  they  approach  the  sea  in  cliff  formation? 
Where  has  the  ocean  built  a  beach  about jtheir  base? 
Describe  this  formation. 


How  have  these  highlands  been  a  protection  to  the  mainland? 

What  evidences  of  erosion  do  you  find  on  the  mainland? 

114 


66  —  Narrow  Coastal  Plains 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  a  narrow  coastal  plain. 

Materials  —  Hay  wards  (Cal.),  Port  Orford  (Ore.)  folio  topographic  sheets. 

Haywards  (Cal.)  sheet. 

How  much  of  this  area  represents  a  coastal  plain? 
What  is  the  gradient  of  this  plain? 

In  what  two  ways  might  this  plain  have  been  made?    (Mark  the  absence  of  drowned  val- 
leys.) 

Where  is  the  old  coast  line? 

Describe  the  topography  east  of  this  hne? 


In  what  direction  do  the  hills  extend? 

Are  there  evidences  of  erosion? 

Find  the  course  of  the  former  river  that  emptied  where  Haywards  is  now  located. 

Describe  the  shape  of  the  contour  lines  between  this  place  and  the  sea. 


What  does  this  shape  show? 

Describe  the  drainage  systems  of  this  coastal  plain. 

Account  for  the  presence  of  the  Coyote  hills. 

Do  they  form  a  part  of  the  ranges  of  the  mainland? 
Where  would  they  most  likely  connect  with  these  ranges? 

Is  the  land  west  of  the  Coyote  hills  rising  or  sinking? 
Why? 

What  do  the  lakes  in  the  marsh  formation  signify? 

How  do  you  account  for  the  presence  of  so  much  salt? 

What  shape  has  the  coast  line  of  this  area? 
Why  are  there  no  good  harbors? 

Why  do  the  railroads  extend  along  this  plain  instead  of  along  the  mainland? 

Explain  the  location  of  the  city  of  Haywards. 

115 


Why  should  this  place  be  larger  than  Decoto? 
Why  are  there  no  large  cities  along  the  coast? 

Port  Orford  (Ore.)  folio  sheet. 

Trace  the  elevated  shore  cliff. 

How  far  is  it  from  the  present  coast  line? 

How  high  is  this  clijBf? 

Is  it  abrupt  or  gradual  in  its  slope? 

Is  this  highland  an  old  sea-line? 

Describe  the  topography  east  of  this  cliff. 


What  difference  is  there  in  age  between  the  eastern  highlands  and  the  western  lowlands? 
How  has  this  narrow  coastal  plain  been  made? 


Describe  the  work  of  the  Elk  river. 

What  part  has  the  ocean  played  in  the  formation  of  this  coastal  plain? 

Of  what  significance  are  the  lagoons? 

Trace  and  explain  the  outlet  of  Floras  lake. 


What  kind  of  a  coast  line  is  that  north  of  Blacklock  point? 

South  of  Cape  Blanco? 

Account  for  the  unevenness  of  the  coast  between  these  two  points. 


Is  the  Sixes  river  aiding  in  the  straightening  of  the  coast  between  these  two  points? 
How  is  it  doing  this? 

Where  are  most  of  the  roadways? 
Is  this  a  thickly  settled  coast? 

Why  are  there  no  good  harbors  on  a  narrow  coastal  plain  that  is  largely  alluvial  in  its 
formation? 


Compare  these  plains  to  other  narrow  coastal  plains  found  in  the  United  States. 

116 


67  —  A  Dissected  Plain 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  a  dissected  plain. 
Materials  —  Wicomico  (Md-  Va.)  topographic  sheet. 


Wicomico  (Md.  -  Va.)  sheet. 

Locate  this  area  upon  your  United  States  map. 
To  what  physiographic  section  does  it  belong? 

What  is  the  scale  of  this  map? 
What  is  the  contour  interval? 
What  large  river  is  in  this  area? 
Describe  its  course. 


Where  is  the  land  highest  in  this  area? 
Describe  the  coast  Une. 


How  do  the  rivers  cross  this  plain? 

Where  are  the  swamp  areas? 

Are  they  being  drained? 

Locate  the  principal  crest  found  in  this  section. 

How  high  is  the  divide  between  Zekiah  and  Gilbert  swamps? 

In  what  directions  do  its  sides  slope? 

What  evidences  do  you  find  of  erosion? 

What  is  the  grade  of  the  Wicomico  river? 
Why  is  this  river  so  wide? 

Describe  the  roadways. 


Why  do  they  not  extend  more  regularly? 

Where  are  the  railroads  located? 
Why? 

117 


68  — AUuvial  Plains 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  alluvial  plains. 

Materials  —  St.  Louis  (111.  -  Mo.),  Sierraville  (Cal.)  topographic  sheets. 

St.  Louis  (111.  -  Mo.)  sheet. 

How  was  this  alluvial  plain  built? 


What  evidences  do  you  find  that  the  Mississippi  river  ever  occupied  any  other  than  its 
present  bed? 


Explain  the  formation  of  Pittsburg  lake. 

Near  which  clifif  is  the  Mississippi  river  now  flowing? 
What  large  city  is  situated  upon  this  clifif? 
What  is  the  elevation  of  the  river  at  this  point? 
In  which  direction  does  Cahokia  creek  flow? 
Explain  the  formation  called  Dead  creek. 

What  is  the  average  elevation  of  this  alluvial  plain? 

What  evidences  do  you  find  that  the  river  ever  flowed  against  the  eastern  clifif? 

How  has  the  migration  of  the  river  changed  its  valley? 

Where  did  the  Mississippi  river  get  the  soil  that  is  deposited  on  this  plain? 

Sierraville  (Cal.)  sheet. 

Locate  this  area  upon  your  United  States  map. 

What  evidences  do  you  find  that  this  is  an  arid  region? 

In  what  general  direction  do  the  rivers  flow? 

Why  are  there  so  many  channels  in  the  river  system  at  the  north? 

How  are  the  mountains  located? 

What  will  be  the  climate  of  this  area? 

Are  the  rivers  making  or  draining  the  marsh  in  the  western  part? 

Which  contour  line  marks  the  limit  of  this  alluvial  plain? 
What  is  the  approxmate  area  of  this  valley? 

118 


69  —  Lacustrine  Plain 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  a  lacustrine  plain. 
Materials  —  Fargo  (N.  D.  -  Minn.)  topographic  sheet. 


Fargo  (N.  D.  -  Minn.)  sheet. 

What  large  river  drains  this  area? 

What  evidences  do  you  find  of  glacial  formation? 


What  lake  once  covered  this  section? 

Is  there  much  or  little  relief  shown  in  this  map? 

Why? 


Where  is  the  greatest  elevation? 
What  is  the  average  slope? 
In  what  direction  does  the  land  slope? 
Describe  the  river  systems? 


Locate  and  describe  the  principal  divides. 


Is  this  a  young  or  an  old  section? 

Has  erosion  been  active? 

How  are  the  roadways  arranged? 


What  great  industry  is  found  in  this  section? 
Why  are  these  lands  well  adapted  to  it? 


What  is  the  rainfall  of  this  area? 


119 


70  —  Glacial  Plains 

Purpose  —  To  study  a  glacial  region. 

Materials  —  Whitewater  (Wis.)  topographic  sheet. 

Whitewater  (Wis.)  sheet. 

Locate  this  region  upon  your  United  States  map. 

Is  it  within  the  area  of  the  ice  sheet  of  North  America? 

Where  is  the  terminal  moraine  in  this  area? 


In  what  direction  does  it  extend? 
Describe  its  topography. 


Where  is  the  most  important  drainage  system  located? 
Describe  this  system. 


Why  are  there  no  rivers  in  the  moraine? 
Account  for  the  lakes? 


Where  is  the  drumlin  area? 

What  is  the  shape  of  these  drumlins? 

In  what  general  direction  do  their  long  axes  extend? 

How  high  are  they? 

What  is  the  altitude  of  the  swamp  in  the  north? 

Is  this  swamp  being  drained  by  the  Scuppernong  river? 

Is  this  a  young  or  an  old  area? 
Why? 


Will  the  farm  lands  become  more  or  less  valuable  with  age? 
Of  what  kind  of  soil  are  they  composed? 
Where  are  the  centers  of  population? 

Give  reasons  for  their  location. 

120 


71  —  A  Lava  Plain 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  a  lava  plain. 
Materials  —  Modoc  (Cal.)  lava-bed  topographic  sheet. 

Modoc  (Cal.)  sheet. 

Locate  the  lava  beds  in  this  sheet. 

Which  is  the  largest  bed? 

What  is  its  greatest  width? 

What  is  its  greatest  length? 

What  high  elevation  is  found  in  this  bed? 

What  is  the  average  altitude  of  this  bed? 

Describe  the  topography  about  Mount  Hoffman. 

Why  has  it  no  drainage  systems? 

Where  does  Medicine  lake  get  its  water? 

Locate  any  lava  flows  you  find  in  this  section. 

How  do  these  compare  in  size  with  the  lava  beds  found  in  the  other  sections? 

What  is  the  height  of  the  lava  ridge  between  Tule  and  Lower  Klamath  lakes? 
Describe  Tule  lake. 

In  what  part  of  this  map  do  you  find  the  larger  drainage  systems? 
Describe  the  course  of  Pitt  river. 

Explain  the  presence  of  the  hot  springs  in  Big  valley. 

Where  are  the  centers  of  population? 

Why  are  there  so  few  settlements  in  the  north? 

Is  this  a  young  or  an  old  area? 
What  will  be  the  history  of  this  area? 

On  cross-section  paper  draw  profiles  from 

Dry  lake ^ to  Bieber. 

Cornell '^. to  Fairchild. 

Burgettville to  Happy  Camp. 

121 


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72  —  Peneplains 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  characteristics  of  peneplains. 

Materials  —  Belchertown  (Mass.),  Webster  (Mass.),  Blackstone  (Mass.)  topographic  sheets. 


Locate  these  areas  upon  a  map  of  Massachusetts  and  study  their  general  structure.  Compare 
their  elevations  and  depressions,  their  drainage  areas,  and  other  physical  features.  Compare 
the  areas  represented  in  these  sheets  with  other  sections  of  Massachusetts. 


Write  a  short  description  of  the  formation  of  a  peneplain. 


Draw  a  profile  of  a  peneplain,  dotting  its  former  profile  before  being  eroded. 


123 


73  —  Plateaus 

Purpose  —  To  study  plateau  formation. 

Materials  —  Centerpoint  (W.  Va.),  Kaibab  (Ariz.)  topographic  sheets. 


Centerpoint  (W.  Va.)  sheet. 

Locate  this  area  upon  your  United  States  map. 

In  which  physiographic  section  of  the  United  States  is  it? 

In  which  part  of  the  Appalachian  plateau  is  it? 

What  is  the  climate  of  this  section? 
What  is  its  rainfall? 

What  is  the  highest  elevation  of  this  area? 
What  is  the  lowest  elevation  of  this  area? 

How  does  the  elevation  of  this  plateau  compare  with  the  elevation  of  the  plateaus  in  the 
western  part  of  the  United  States? 


is  there  a  general  slope  to  this  plateau? 
What  is  a  good  evidence  of  slope? 


Locate  the  ten  hills  shown  in  this  area. 
What  are  the  different  heights  of  these  hills? 

What  has  caused  the  surface  of  this  section  to  become  uneven? 

What  general  shape  do  the  cross-sections  of  the  valleys  have? 

Do  some  of  the  valleys  show  greater  age  than  others? 
Why? 

Describe  the  shape  of  the  divides. 

Are  there  any  small  plateaus  in  this  area? 

At  what  stage  of  erosion  is  this  section? 

Is  this  a  thickly  settled  section? 

Are  there  any  forests  in  this  region? 

What  would  be  the  industries  of  the  inhabitants? 

124 


Are  the  roadways  well  developed? 


Compare  this  area  to  other  plateau  sections  of  the  United  States. 


Kaibab  sheet. 


Locate  this  area  in  reference  to  the  above  section. 

Does  the  Kaibab  sheet  show  more  or  less  erosion  than  the  Centerpoint  sheet? 

Which  area  is  the  older? 

What  is  the  greatest  elevation  in  this  section? 

In  what  general  direction  does  the  land  slope? 

Describe  the  Kaibab  plateau. 


How  much  higher  is  this  than  the  Kanab  plateau? 

Which  shows  the  greater  erosion? 

In  which  are  the  valleys  deeper? 

In  which  part  of  this  map  are  the  river  systems  largest? 

Which  part  of  Kanab  creek  is  intermittent? 

What  becomes  of  the  creek  running  out  of  Big  Spring? 


What  is  the  rainfall  of  this  section? 

Compare  with  that  of  the  Centerpoint  (W.Va.)  area. 

Why  are  there  so  few  settlements? 

What  are  the  industries  of  this  area? 


What  will  be  the  history  of  this  section? 


125 


74  —  Valleys 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  formation  of  valleys. 

Materials  —  La  Salle  (111.),  Lykens  (Penn.),  Shamokin  (Penn.)  topographic  sheets. 

La  Salle  (111.)  sheet. 

What  is  the  scale  of  this  map? 

How  many  square  miles  are  represented  in  this  section? 
What  is  the  contour  interval? 
,  Why  is  this  contour  interval  made  so  small? 


To  what  drainage  system  does  this  area  belong? 

In  which  direction  does  the  Illinois  river  flow? 

Of  what  river  is  it  a  tributary? 

Locate  the  gorge  about  four  miles  west  of  Vermilion  river. 

Is  this  a  deep  or  a  shallow  gorge? 

How  deep  is  it? 

Where  is  it  steepest? 

What  is  the  gradient  of  this  stream? 

Where  are  the  tributaries  of  this  stream  located? 


In  what  other  parts  of  this  area  do  you  find  similar  gorges? 
Are  these  young  or  old  gorges?  Why? 


What  is  the  average  altitude  of  the  land  at  the  heads  of  these  gorges? 

What  is  the  average  altitude  at  their  mouths? 

Describe  the  course  of  the  little  Vermilion  river  north  of  the  Illinois. 


What  is  the  depth  of  its  bed? 
Has  it  any  tributary  streams? 
Describe  the  Tomahawk. 


Is  its  gorge  as  narrow  as  those  previously  studied? 

What  is  the  width  of  the  gorge  of  the  Vermilion  two  miles  north  of  La  Salle? 

126 


Describe  the  Vermilion  river  found  south  of  the  Illinois. 

What  differences  do  you  find  between  its  gorge  and  those  already  studied? 

Is  this  as  young  a  gorge  as  the  other  two? 

What  is  the  width  of  the  gorge  where  the  road  from  Oglesby  crosses  it? 

How  deep  is  it  there? 

Is  this  a  swift  flowing  river?  Why? 

What  contour  lines  form  the  boundaries  of  the  Illinois  valley? 

Are  the  valley  sides  steep  or  gentle  in  slope? 

Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 


Where  are  they  the  steepest? 

Is  the  base  of  the  Illinois  valley  wide  or  narrow? 

What  kind  of  a  plain  has  this  river  made? 

Where  is  it  eroding  its  bank? 

Where  has  deposition  taken  place? 

What  is  the  average  altitude  of  the  flood  plain? 

What  geographic  agent  formed  the  valleys  in  this  sheet? 

Is  this  latter  valley  an  older  formation  than  the  others? 

Give  your  reasons  for  this  answer. 


Of  what  use  is  the  lUinois-Michigan  canal? 

Explain  the  value  of  the  location  of  La  Salle. 

Explain  the  regularity  of  the  Illinois  Central  railroad  north  of  La  Salle. 

Describe  and  locate  the  principal  roadways. 

Lykens  (Penn.)  sheet. 

How  does  this  area  differ  from  the  preceding  one? 


How  many  valleys  do  you  find  in  this  section? 
Which  is  the  largest  one? 
Which  is  the  smallest  one? 


127 


Were  these  valleys  made  by  the  rivers? 
Locate  and  describe  a  valley  made  by  a  river. 


What  and  where  is  the  greatest  altitude  on  this  map? 
How  many  ranges  of  mountains  are  there? 
In  what  general  direction  do  these  mountains  extend? 
Describe  the  formation  called  Peters  mountain. 


Where  is  its  elevation  steepest? 

Where  does  it  spread  out  fan-shape? 

How  far  is  it  across  the  valley  at  Williamstown? 

What  is  the  greatest  distance  from  Mahantango  mountain  to  Line  mountain? 

Which  of  these  two  valleys  shows  the  greater  erosion? 

Is  the  region  between  Berry  mountain  and  Peters  mountain  a  plateau? 

Is  it  a  regular  or  irregular  plateau? 

Does  it  show  evidences  of  erosion? 

Locate  and  describe  some  of  the  principal  water  gaps. 


How  do  the  roadways  cross  these  mountains? 

Do  the  main  roads  generally  follow  the  valleys? 
Why? 

Explain  the  peculiar  turnings  of  the  Kalmia  Branch,  Philadelphia  &  Reading  railroad. 
Of  what  use  is  the  tuimel  through  the  Big  Lick  mountain? 


Where  does  this  Summit  Branch  railroad  end? 

Why  does  it  not  go  farther  up  the  mountain? 

How  would  you  reach  the  top  of  the  mountain  from  the  end  of  the  railroad? 

Why  are  there  no  railroads  in  the  valley  at  the  north? 


Describe  the  roadways  in  this  valley. 
Where  are  the  centers  of  population? 


What  are  the  industries  of  these  towns? 

What  are  some  of  the  industries  of  this  section? 


128 


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Shamokin  (Penn.)  sheet. 

Describe  the  valley  of  Shamokin  creek  from  Shamokin  to  Reed  Crowl. 


Describe  the  valley  of  Shamokin  creek  from  Reed  Crowl  to  Arters. 


Describe  the  valley  of  the  Susquehanna  river. 


How  do  the  valleys  of  this  area  differ  from  those  of  the  two  sections  just  studied? 


129 


75  —  Canyons 

Purpose  —  To  study  a  river  canyon. 
Materials  —  Kaibab  (Ariz.)  topographic  sheet. 

Kaibab  (Ariz.)  sheet. 

Locate  the  area  of  this  river  upon  your  United  States  map. 

To  what  drainage  system  does  it  belong? 

Where  does  it  empty? 

Where  does  it  rise? 

What  is  the  chmate  of  this  section? 

What  is  its  rainfall? 

What  evidences  do  you  find  that  this  is  an  arid  country? 


Describe  the  course  of  the  Colorado  river. 


How  much  of  the  Grand  Canyon  shows  in  this  sheet? 

Where  is  its  widest  part? 

How  wide  is  it? 

What  is  the  greatest  depth  of  this  canyon? 

Which  of  its  sides  shows  greater  erosion? 

Measure  the  width  of  the  top  of  the  canyon  along  the  parallel  36-15  from  112-15  to  the- 

greatest  height  just  west  of  112-30. 
Draw  the  profile  on  the  cross-section  paper  at  this  place.    (Use  only  the  heavier  contour 

lines  for  guides.) 

From  the  intersection  of  36-15  and  112-15  measure  the  distance  across  the  canyon  to  the 

corresponding  contour  line. 
How  deep  is  the  canyon  at  this  place? 
How  are  the  contour  lines  arranged? 


Describe  Powells  plateau. 


Why  are  there  so  few  tributary  streams  in  this  section? 

130 


Compare  this  section  of  the  Grand  Canyon  with  that  west  of  the  112-30  meridian. 

Which  is  the  wider? 

Which  is  the  deeper? 

Which  section  shows  the  more  erosion? 

Which  has  the  larger  tributary  canyons? 

What  is  the  distance  across  the  canyon  where  the  Kanab.  creek  enters  the  Colorado  river? 

Are  the  sides  of  this  canyon  as  steep  as  those  of  the  canyon  farther  east? 

What  is  the  difference  in  height  of  the  Colorado  river  at  Bright  Angel  creek  and  at  Cataract 

creek? 
What  is  the  gradient  of  this  river? 
Is  the  river  broad? 
Is  it  still  eroding  its  bed? 
Is  this  a  young  or  an  old  area? 
What  will  be  the  history  of  this  river? 


Draw  a  profile  on  the  cross-section  paper  of  the  Colorado  river  where  the  Kanab  enters  it. 


Write  a  short  account  of  a  trip  through  the  Colorado  canyon. 


131 


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76  —  Desert  Formation 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  structure  of  a  desert. 
Materials  —  Sevier  desert  (Utah)  topographic  sheet. 

Sevier  desert  (Utah)  sheet. 

Locate  this  area  upon  your  United  States  map. 

To  what  physiographic  section  does  it  belong? 

What  is  the  cUmate  of  this  country? 

What  is  its  rainfall? 

What  is  the  altitude  of  the  Sevier  desert? 

Describe  the  surface  of  this  desert. 


Is  this  topography  characteristic  of  all  desert  formation? 
What  mountains  are  in  the  eastern  part  of  this  area? 

To  what  system  do  they  belong? 

What  is  their  greatest  altitude? 

What  evidences  of  erosion  do  they  show? 


Will  erosion  take  place  rapidly  in  this  area? 
Why? 

How  does  the  Sevier  river  cross  these  mountains? 
Has  this  river  many  tributaries?  Why? 

What  elevations  are  found  to  the  south? 
Describe  Cherry  creek. 


Is  there  much  alluvial  soil  in  this  area? 
What  is  the  nature  of  the  soil? 


Why  are  there  so  few  roadways? 

Are  the  centers  of  population  large  or  small? 

What  will  be  the  principal  industry  of  the  cities  in  the  northern  part? 

Will  this  area  ever  be  valuable  to  man? 


Compare  this  desert  area  with  other  desert  areas  to  be  found  in  the  world. 

133 


77  —  Folded  Mountains 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  structure  of  folded  mountains. 

Materials  —  Hummelstown  (Penn.),  Harrisburg  (Penn.)  quadrangle  topographic  sheets. 

Hummelstown  (Penn.)  sheet. 

Locate  this  section  upon  your  United  States  map. 
To  which  physiographic  region  does  it  belong? 

What  system  of  mountains  extends  across  this  area? 
What  are  the  names  of  the  ranges? 

How  do  they  extend? 

What  is  the  average  height  of  these  mountains? 

How  deep  is  the  first  valley? 

How  wide  is  it? 

How  deep  is  the  valley  of  Stony  creek? 

How  wide  is  it? 

Describe  the  topography  between  Sharp  and  Stony  mountains. 


Which  side  of  these  mountains  is  the  more  deeply  eroded? 

Which  valley  has  the  more  irregular  surface? 

Where  will  you  be  likely  to  find  anticlines? 

Where  will  you  find  synclines? 

How  are  folded  mountains  made?    (Explain  fully.) 


What  evidences  do  you  find  in  this  area  that  these  mountains  might  have  been  made  in 
this  way? 

Draw  a  profile  of  the  first  valley  from  the  summit  of  Blue  mountain  to  the  summit  of 
Sharp  mountain. 


Harrisburg  (Penn.)  quadrangle  sheet. 

Compare  this  area  with  that  of  Hummelstown. 
Note  briefly  the  similarities  and  the  differences. 


How  many  parallel  valleys  do  you  find? 

134 


What  is  the  width  of  the  valley  of  Fishing  creek? 

How  deep  is  it? 

Is  it  an  eroded  valley? 

Compare  this  valley  to  that  of  the  Colorado  river. 


What  is  the  gradient  of  Fishing  creek? 

Describe  the  valley  through  which  the  Philadelphia  &  Reading  railroad  passes. 


Describe  the  valley  and  ridge  north  of  Peters  mountain. 


What  evidences  do  you  find  that  these  ranges  were  made  by  the  folding  of  the  earth's 
erust? 


135 


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78  —  Domed  Mountains 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  structure  of  domed  mountains. 
Materials  —  Henry  mountains  (Utah)  topographic  sheet. 

Henry  mountains  (Utah)  sheet. 

Locate  this  area  upon  your  United  States  map. 
What  evidences  of  erosion  do  you  find? 

How  is  this  erosion  represented  upon  the  map? 

Locate  the  four  principal  mountains  in  this  area. 
How  do  they  compare  in  shape? 

How  far  are  they  apart?    (Record  each  distance  from  Mt.  Ellsworth  northward.) 

What  is  the  altitude  of 
Mt.  Ellsworth? 
Mt.  Holmes? 
Mt.  Hillers? 
Mt.  Fennel? 

Are  these  mountains  situated  in  the  volcanic  region  of  the  United  States? 
Are  there  any  evidences  of  intruded  lava  in  this  section? 
Where  is  this  lava  located? 

Where  are  the  igneous  rocks  found? 

What  has  brought  these  rocks  to  the  surface? 

What  must  have  been  the  original  shape  of  these  mountains? 

What  shape  do  all  laccolithic  mountains  have? 

Describe  the  valley  of  Pine  Alcove  creek. 


Sketch  a  profile  of  Mt.  Holmes  from  the  5,000  contour  line  and  dot  its  probable  former 
shape. 


137 


79  —  Life  History  of  Mountains 

Write  a  full  account  of  the  life  history  of  mountains. 


138 


IV.    THE  ATMOSPHERE 

80  —  The  Composition  of  the  Atmosphere 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  composition  of  the  atmosphere. 
Materials  —  Ruler,  pencil. 


•Composition  of  the  atmosphere: 

per  cent. 

Oxygen 20.60 

Nitrogen 77.18 

Water  vapor 1.40 

Carbon  dioxide      04 

Other  gases .78 

Draw  a  diagram  two  inches  square.    Divide  this  to  show  the  proportion  of  gases  and  vapor  in  the 
atmosphere. 


Of  what  use  is  oxygen  to  all  forms  of  life? 
Explain  rapid  combustion  (burning). 

Explain  slow  combustion  (oxidation). 

How  does  oxygen  get  into  the  rocks? 
How  does  the  plant  use  oxygen? 
How  does  oxygen  return  to  the  air? 

139 


What  plants  take  nitrogen  directly  from  the  air? 
How  do  they  do  this? 

What  is  the  function  of  nitrogen  in  the  air? 

What  effect  has  carbon  dioxide  on  the  climate  of  the  earth? 

Is  CO 2  ever  found  in  the  earth's  crust? 
What  is  the  "  choke  damp  "  of  mines? 
Why  is  it  necessary  to  ventilate  a  room? 


Draw  a  diagram  showing  how  the  atmosphere  diffuses  the  light  of  the  sun  at  twilight.    Contrast 
with  conditions  at  noon. 


Which  travels  the  faster  in  the  atmosphere,  light  or  sound  waves? 
Illustrate.  * 


How  does  the  atmosphere  distribute  moisture? 
Illustrate. 


140 


81  —  Atmospheric  Pressure 

Purpose  —  To  study  atmospheric  pressure. 

Materials  —  Glass  tumbler,  piece  of  cardboard  (large  enough  to  completely  cover  mouth  of 
tumbler),  large-mouthed  bottle,  pan,  small  candle,  cork,  scales. 

Fill  the  tumbler  full  of  water  and  place  the  cardboard  over  the  top. 

Invert  the  tumbler,  holding  the  cardboard  in  place  with  the  fingers.    Carefully  remove 
the  fingers. 

What  occurs? 

Why  does  the  cardboard  remain  over  the  mouth  of  the  tumbler? 

Hold  the  tumbler  in  different  positions. 
Does  the  cardboard  fall  off? 
Does  air  press  upon  the  cardboard  in  all  directions? 

Compute  the  weight  of  the  water  in  the  tumbler  by  weighing  it  empty  and  then  full  of  water. 

How  much  must  have  been  the  air  pressure  upon  the  mouth  of  the  tumbler?    (The  total 
pressure  of  the  air  was  of  course  greater  than  this  figure.) 

Why  could  not  this  experiment  have  been  done  without  the  cardboard? 

Partially  fill  the  pan  with  water.  Attach  the  lighted  candle  to  the  cork  and  float  it  upon  the 
water.  Invert  the  large-mouthed  bottle  over  the  candle  with  its  mouth  below  the  surface  of 
the  water  but  not  on  the  bottom  of  the  pan. 

What  occurs? 

What  causes  the  candle  to  rise  in  the  bottle? 

How  high  does  the  water  rise  in  the  bottle? 

Where  does  the  water  in  the  bottle  come  from? 

What  causes  the  water  in  the  pan  to  pass  into  the  bottle? 

What  is  the  atmospheric  pressure  per  square  foot? 
What  is  meant  by  "an  atmosphere?  " 

What  causes  this  weight  of  the  atmosphere? 
Does  this  weight  vary  any  from  day  to  day? 

Does  it  vary  with  altitude? 

141 


82  —  The  Barometer 


Purpose  —  To  construct  and  study  a  barometer. 

Materials  —  Glass  tube  36  inches  long  closed  at  one  end,  glass  tumbler,  small  glass  funnel,  support 
for  tube,  mercury,  ruler. 


Fill  the  tube  with  mercury  by  using  the  glass  funnel.  Holding  a  finger  over  the  open  end,  invert 
the  tube  in  the  tumbler  partly  filled  with  mercury.  Remove  your  finger  and  fasten  the  glass 
tube  in  the  support. 

What  was  in  the  glass  tube  before  the  mercury  was  inserted? 
Was  there  any  air  in  the  tube  after  it  was  filled  with  mercury? 
What  has  become  of  this  air? 

Describe  what  happened  when  the  tube  was  placed  in  the  glass  of  mercury  and  the  finger 
was  removed  from  its  end. 


Would  this  have  happened  if  the  top  of  the  tube  had  been  open? 
What  is  in  the  tube  now? 

Is  there  any  air  in  the  tube  above  the  column  of  mercury? 
Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 


How  high  is  the  top  of  the  mercury  column  above  the  mercury  in  the  glass? 
What  is  supporting  this  column  of  mercury? 
Explain  this  fully. 


What  would  cause  the  height  of  this  column  to  vary? 

If  the  air  pressure  was  increased,  what  would  happen  to  the  column  of  mercury? 

What  would  happen  if  the  pressure  were  decreased? 

How  would  a  barometer  show  the  variations  of  air  pressure? 


How  would  a  barometer  show  the  changes  of  elevation? 


Would  the  barometric  column  rise  or  fall  if  you  ascended  a  mountain? 
Why? 

142 


Would  the  barometric  column  rise  or  fall  when  it  rains? 
Why?    (Explain  fully.) 


Compare  the  barometer  you  made  with  a  commercial  one. 

Make  a  drawing  of  the  apparatus  used  in  making  your  barometer. 


Construct  a  pressure  curve  on  the  cross-section  paper  from  the  following  barometric  readings: 


Day. 


8  a.  m. 


Noon. 


8  p.  m. 


Midnight. 


Monday  . 

Tuesday  . 

Wednesday 

Thursday 

Friday 

Saturday 

Sunday    . 


29.70 
30.30 
30.20 
29.20 
30.30 
30.30 
30.60 


29.80 
30.10 
30.00 
29.70 
30.60 
30.30 
30.30 


29.90 
30.40 
29.60 
30.00 
30.50 
30.40 
30.10 


30.00 
30.50 
29.40 
30.20 
30.40 
30.50 
30.00 


Construct  other  curves  taken  from  the  readings  of  the  school  barometer.    (Daily  readings  for  a 
week  at  a  time  will  furnish  enough  data  for  the  construction  of  these  curves.) 


143 


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83  —  Isobars 


Purpose  —  To  study  and  plot  isobaric  lines. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils. 

Upon  the  United  States  weather  map,  draw  isobars  from  the  pressure  figures  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table.    (Use  a  different  colored  pencil  for  each  isobar.) 
Mark  the  high  and  low  pressure  areas. 


Abilene,  Tex 29.9 

Asheville,  No.  Ca 30.0 

Atlanta,  Ga 30.0 

Augusta,  Ga 30 . 1 

Baker  City,  Oreg 29.  7 

Bismark,  No.  Dak 29.4 

Boise,  Idaho 29.6 

Charlotte,  No.  Ca 30.1 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 30.0 

Cheyenne,  Wyo 29.5 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 30.1 

Cleveland,  Ohio 30.1 

Davenport,  Iowa 30 . 1 

Del  Rio,  Tex 29.9 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 30 . 0 

Devil's  Lake,  No.  Dak 29.5 

Dodge  City,  Kans 29.8 

Duluth,  Minn 29.9 

Durango,  Colo 29.7 

Eureka,  Cal 30.0 

Fort  Smith,  Ark 30.0 

Fresno,  Cal 30.0 

Grand  Junction,  Colo. 29.6 

Harrisburg,  Penn 30.0 

Helena,  Mont 29 . 3 

Huron,  So.  Dak 29.6 

Jupiter,  Fla 30.1 

KaUspel,  Mont 29.4 

Knoxville,  Tenn 30.0 

La  Crosse,  Wis 30.1 

Lander,  Wyo 29.3 

Lewiston,  Idaho 29.5 

Lincoln,  Neb 29 . 8 

What  are  high  pressure  areas? 


Los  Angeles,  Cal      30 . 0 

Meridian,  Miss 30.0 

Modena,  Utah 29.8 

Moorhead,  Minn 29.6 

Mount  Weather,  Va 30.0 

Norfolk,  Va 30.1 

North  Platte,  Neb 29.6 

Oklahoma,  Okla 29 . 9 

Pensacola,  Fla 30.0 

Pierre,  So.  Dak 29.5 

Pittsburg,  Penn 30.0 

Pocatello,  Idaho 29.5 

Port  Arthur,  Can 30 . 1 

Rapid  City,  So.  Dak 29.3 

Red  Bluff,  Cal 30.0 

Roseburg,  Oreg 29.9 

Salt  Lake,  Utah 29.6 

San  Francisco,  Cal 30.1 

San  Louis  Obispo,  Cal 30.1 

Sante  Fe,  N.  Mex 29.8 

Shreveport,  La 30.0 

Spokane,  Wash 29.6 

Springfield,  111 30.1 

Springfield,  Mo 30.0 

St.  Paul,  Minn 29.9 

Tacoma,  Wash 29.8 

Tampa,  Fla 30.1 

Topeka,  Kans 29.9 

Williston,  No.  Dak 29.3 

Winnemucca,  Nev 29.9 

Yankton,  So.  Dak 29.7 

Yuma,  Ariz 29 . 9 


What  are  low  pressure  areas? 

What  conditions  of  the  atmosphere  produce  each  of  these  areas? 
What  are  isobars? 

In  what  general  directions  do  the  isobars  extend? 
Note  any  marked  irregularities  in  the  isobars. 

145 


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146 


84  —  Air  Density 

Tell  concisely  what  is  meant  by  air  density. 


Explain  fully  the  terms  volume,  mass,  and  density  as  applied  to  solids. 


What  causes  the  density  of  the  air  to  vary?    (Explain  fully.) 


What  effect  upon  life  does  this  variation  of  air  density  have?    (Explain  fully.) 


What  evidences  do  you  find  that  air  is  compressible? 


What  force  compresses  the  atmosphere? 


In  what  part  of  the  earth's  atmosphere  will  friction  be  greatest? 


Why? 


Describe  the  so-called  "  falling  stars." 


147 


85  —  Atmospheric  Temperature 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  distribution  of  atmospheric  temperature. 

Materials  —  Thermal  maps  of  the  world  for  July  and  January,  colored  pencils. 

Describe  carefully  how  the  atmosphere  is  warmed  and  cooled. 


What  effects  upon  temperature  have  pressure,  latitude,  altitude? 


Upon  the  map  of  the  world  locate  the  greatest  heat  belt.    (Use  a  red  colored  pencil  for 

this  purpose.) 
Locate  the  cold  belts.    (Use  a  blue  colored  pencil  for  this  purpose.) 

What  is  the  average  July  temperature  for  the  30th  parallel?  The  40th  parallel? 

The  60th  parallel?  The  80th  parallel? 

What  is  the  average  January  temperature  at  these  places? 

In  which  hemisphere  are  the  land  areas  the  largest? 

In  which  hemisphere  are  there  the  greatest  extremes  of  temperature? 

Why? 


Describe  the  seasonal  changes  of  temperature  at  your  home  and  give  reasons  for  same. 


Which  section  of  the  earth  will  receive  the  greatest  amount  of  heat  on  March  21st? 

June  21st?  September  21st?  December  21st? 

Give  the  relative  proportions  of  heat  received  by  the  North  Pole  on  these  dates. 


Describe  the  variations  of  heat  at  the  60th  parallel  between  December  1st  and  June  1st. 


Mark  your  home  town  upon  the  map  of  the  world.    Locate  the  antipodes  of  this  place. 
Compare  the  seasonal  changes  of  temperature  of  these  places. 

14S 


Plot  temperature  curves  for  the  following  places : 


Place 

Lat. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mch. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1  Singapore  .    .    . 

0 

79 

80 

81 

81 

82 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80.5 

80 

79 

2  Galveston     .    . 

29 

51 

58 

63 

71 

78 

81 

83 

79 

76 

60.0 

58 

51 

3  Boston  .... 

42 

37 

29 

35 

51 

60 

71 

78 

77 

71 

59.0 

47 

35 

4  Your  home   .    . 

Which  month  is  warmest  in  curve  2? 

In  curve  4? 

Why  are  these  months  the  warmest? 

What  is  the  seasonal  range  in  each  curve? 

1  — 
.   2  — 

3  — 

4  — 

Consult  temperature  records  of  other  cities  and  explain  any  differences  found. 


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86  —  The  Thermometer 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  thermometer. 
Materials  —  Two  small  thermometers. 


Describe  the  structure  of  a  thermometer. 

What  are  the  limits  of  temperature  under  which  a  mercurial  thermometer  may  be  used?" 
Why? 

When  would  an  alcoholic  thermometer  be  used? 

Describe  the  Fahrenheit  scale  on  the  thermometer. 

Why  is  the  Centigrade  scale  better  than  the  Fahrenheit? 

How  would  you  change  Fahrenheit  readings  to  Centigrade  readings? 

How  would  you  change  Centigrade  readings  to  Fahrenheit  readings? 

Of  what  use  is  a  wet  bulb  thermometer? 

Explain  how  it  acts. 

To  one  of  the  two  thermometers  attach  a  piece  of  wet  cloth  about  the  bulb;  whirl  the  thermom- 
eter in  the  air  to  hasten  evaporation.  Record  the  readings  of  the  two  thermometers  in  the 
following  table.    Compare  the  results. 


Time 

Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday 

Friday 

Wet 

Dry 

Wet 

Dry 

Wet 

Dry 

Wet 

Dry 

Wet 

Dry 

8.00 

10.00 

12.  m 

2.00 

4.00 

6.00 

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152 


87  —  Isotherms 


Purpose  —  To  study  and  plot  isothermal  lines. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils. 

Upon  the  United  States  weather  map  draw  isothermal  lines  from  the  temperature  figures  given 
in  the  following  table.    (Use  a  different  colored  pencil  for  each  isotherm.) 


Asheville,  N.  C 30 

Atlanta,  Ga 40 

Baker  City,  Ore 30 

BilUngs,  Mont ' 0 

Birmingham,  Ala. 40 

Bismark,  No.  Dak 10 

Brownsville,  Tex 50 

Burlington,  Vt 10 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 40 

Cheyenne,  Wyo 30 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 40 

Cleveland,  Ohio 30 

Corpus  Christi,  Tex 60 

Devil's  Lake,  No.  Dak 10 

Duluth,  Minn 20 

Flagstaff,  Ariz 40 

Fort  Smith,  Ark 50 

Green  Bay,  Wis 30 

Hannibal,  Mo 40 

Havre,  Mont 10 

Helena,  Mont 10 

Huron,  So.  Dak 20 

Jacksonville,  Fla 50 

KaUspel,  Mont 20 

Key  West,  Fla 70 

Lander,  Wyo 20 

Lansing,  Mich 30 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 50 

Memphis,  Tenn 50 

Meridian,  Tenn 50 

What  are  isothermal  lines? 


Missoula,  Mont 10 

Mobile,  Ala 50 

New  Haven,  Conn 20 

New  Orleans,  La 60 

Norfolk,  Va 30 

Qu'Appelle,  Can 10 

Pensacola,  Fla 50 

Phoenix,  Ariz 50 

Pierre,  So.  Dak 20 

Pittsburg,  Penn 30 

Port  Arthur,  Can 20 

Portland,  Me 10 

Red  Bluff,  Cal 40 

Roseburg,  Oreg 40 

Roswell,  N.  Mex 50 

Salt  Lake,  Utah 30 

San  Luis  Obispo,  Cal 50 

Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex 40 

Savannah,  Ga 40 

Sheridan,  Wyo 10 

Sioux  City,  Iowa 30 

Spokane,  Wash 30 

St.  Paul,  Minn 30 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 20 

Tacoma,  Wash 40 

Tampa,  Fla 60 

Wichita,  Kans 40 

Williston,  N.  Dak 0 

Winnemucca,  Nev 30 


In  what  general  direction  do  they  extend? 

How  do  they  differ  in  this  respect  from  isobaric  lines? 

Why  do  not  the  isothermal  hues  follow  the  parallels  in  the  earth's  surface. 

Compare  the  weather  maps  that  you  have  constructed  with  maps  issued  by  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau. 


153 


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88  —  Temperature  Zones 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  temperature  zones. 

Materials  —  Colored  pencils,  mean  annual  isothermal  map  of  the  world. 

What  is  the  difference  between  temperature  and  quantity  of  heat?    (Explain  fully.) 

What  factors  govern  the  temperature  of  any  place? 

What  is  the  heat  equator? 

Why  does  this  equator  move  north  and  south  during  the  year? 

What  isotherms  form  the  boundaries  of  the  hot  belt? 

Of  the  temperate  belt? 

Of  the  frigid  belt? 

Why  are  the  temperature  zones  more  irregular  in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern  hem- 
isphere? 

Of  what  belts  are  the  tropics  and  the  circles  the  boundaries? 
Explain  fully  your  reasons  for  this  answer. 


Indicate  the  hot  belt  and  the  two  frigid  belts  upon  the  map  of  the  world.  Name  each 
temperature  belt  upon  your  map.  (Consult  your  isothermal  map  for  the  boundaries  of 
these  belts.    Color  the  warm  belt  red,  the  temperate  belt  green,  and  the  frigid  belt  blue.) 


155 


156 


89  —  Insolation 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  effect  of  insolation. 

Materials  —  A  piece  of  board  with  a  two-inch  square  opening  in  the  center,  thermometer. 


Place  the  board  on  a  level  table  in  the  sunlight.  Elevate  one  end  of  the  board  so  that  the  open- 
ing will  face  the  south.  Raise  or  lower  the  board  until  the  noon  sun  will  penetrate  the  opening 
at  right  angles  to  the  face  of  the  board. 


How  does  the  lighted  area  upon  the  table  compare  with  the  opening  in  the  board  at  — 

8  a.  m. 

10  a.  m. 

12  m. 

2  p.  m. 

4  p.  m. 

When  is  the  lighted  area  the  smallest? 

What  is  its  shape  then? 

When  will  the  greatest  amount  of  sunshine  pass  through  this  opening? 

Place  the  thermometer  upon  the  table  so  that  the  bulb  will  be  directly  beneath  the  opening  in 
the  board.    Record  the  results  in  the  table  below. 


Time 

Area  of  light 

Temperature 

Position  of  sun 

Per  cent,  of  light 
received 

8.00 

10.00 

12.00 

2.00 

4.00 

Compare  the  results  shown  in  the  above  table  with  the  effects  of  different  Ught  angles  upon 

the  ground.    (To  do  this  a  southern  slope  is  preferable.) 
Apply  this  principle  to  seasonal  changes.    (Explain  fully.) 


157 


90  —  Planetary  Winds 


Purpose  —  To  map  and  study  the  planetary  winds. 
Materials  —  Compass,  ruler,  pencil. 


With  a  radius  of  two  inches,  describe  a  circle  to  represent  the  circumference  of  the  earth.  Draw 
the  equator  and  the  two  30-degree  parallels.  Mark  the  equator  L  (for  low  pressure  area)  and 
the  parallels  H  (for  high  pressure  areas).  Indicate  by  means  of  arrows  the  direction  of  the  wind 
from  these  high  pressure  areas  if  the  earth  did  not  rotate.  By  means  of  other  arrows  show  the 
directions  of  these  winds  on  the  rotating  earth.    Name  the  two  winds  represented. 


158 


In  what  direction  do  winds  blow? 
Explain  this. 

What  is  meant  by  high  pressure  areas? 

What  is  meant  by  a  low  pressure  area? 

How  is  temperature  a  factor  in  creating  these  areas? 

Explain  Ferrel's  Law. 


Explain  the  anti-trades. 


Locate  the  equatorial  belt  of  calms  on  your  map. 
Locate  the  horse  latitudes. 
Why  are  these  calm  belts? 


Describe  the  circum-polar  whirl. 


Explain  the  annual  movements  of  these  winds  north  and  south. 


Upon  the  map  of  the  world  locate  the  following  areas: 

Winds:    Prevailing    southwesterlies,     prevailing    northwesterlies,     northeast    trades, 

southeast  trades,  monsoons. 
Calms:    Calms  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn,  Equatorial  Calms,  Doldrums. 

159 


160 


91  —  Cyclonic  Winds 

Purpose  —  To  study  cyclonic  winds. 

Materials  —  United  States  weather  maps  covering  a  week  of  time. 

Write  a  short  account  of  cyclonic  winds. 


Write  a  short  account  of  anti-cyclonic  winds. 


Study  the  movements  of  the  high  and  low  pressure  areas  upon  your  weather  maps.    Note 
carefully  the  direction  of  the  winds  about  these  areas. 

Describe  and  explain  the  movements  of  the  cyclonic  winds  as  shown  by  your  weather  maps. 


161 


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94  —  Condensation 

Purpose  —  To  study  condensation  of  water  vapor. 
Materials  —  Flask,  glass  plate,  tumbler,  ice,  thermometer. 

Heat  some  water  in  the  flask  until  it  boils. 

What  becomes  of  the  water  in  the  flask? 

What  is  the  color  of  the  steam? 

What  has  caused  the  change  from  water  to  steam? 

Hold  the  glass  plate  above  the  opening  of  the  flask. 

What  collects  on  the  under  side  of  the  plate? 
What  causes  this  vapor  to  collect? 

What  causes  it  to  condense? 

Is  there  any  vapor  collected  on  the  upper  side  of  the  plate? 

Cool  the  glass  plate  as  much  as  possible.    Hold  it  before  the  mouth  and  breathe  upon  it. 
Has  any  vapor  collected  upon  the  plate? 
Where  did  this  vapor  come  from? 
Why  does  fog  form  upon  a  mountain  slope? 

What  is  dew? 

How  is  it  formed? 

Tell  briefly  what  conditions  are  necessary  for  the  condensation  of  water  vapor. 


164 


Place  a  piece  of  ice  in  a  tumbler  of  water  at  the  same  temperature  as  the  room.  Stir  with  a  ther- 
mometer until  moisture  begins  to  form  on  the  outside  of  the  tumbler.  Note  the  temperature 
of  the  water  as  soon  as  the  moisture  forms  and  the  temperature  of  the  room. 

From  the  following  table  find  the  capacity  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  room  for  moisture. 
Repeat  this  experiment  at  different  times  recording  the  results  below. 


SATURATED  WATER  VAPOR  IN  A  CUBIC  FOOT  OF  SPACE  AT  DIFFERENT  TEM- 
PERATURES EXPRESSED  IN  GRAINS 


20° 
22° 
24° 
26° 
28° 
30° 
32° 
34° 
36° 
38° 


1.235 

40° 

2.849 

60° 

5.745 

80° 

1.355 

42° 

3.064 

62° 

6.142 

82° 

1.483 

44° 

3.294 

64° 

6.563 

84° 

1.623 

46° 

3.539 

66° 

7.009 

86° 

1.773 

48° 

3.800 

68° 

7.480 

88° 

1.935 

50° 

4.076 

70° 

7.980 

90° 

2.113 

52° 

4.372 

72° 

8.505 

92° 

2.279 

54° 

4.685 

74° 

9.066 

94° 

2.457 

56° 

5.016 

76° 

9.655 

96° 

2.646 

58° 

5.370 

78° 

10.277 

98° 

10.934 
11.626 
12.356 
13.127 
13.937 
14.790 
15.689 
16.634 
17.626 
18.671 


Dewpoint 

Date 

Time 

Temperature  of 
water 

Temperature  of 
room 

1 

2 

3 

4 

RESULTS 

1 

2 

3 

4 

165 


95  —  Relative  Humidity 

Purpose  —  To  study  relative  humidity. 

Materials  —  Two  thermometers,  small  pan,  piece  of  muslin. 


Attach  the  muslin  to  the  bulb  of  one  of  the  thermometers  allowing  it  to  hang  down  several  inches. 
Fill  the  pan  with  water  and  place  the  end  of  the  muslin  in  the  water.  Fasten  the  thermometers 
to  a  stand  so  that  they  may  be  easily  read.    Keep  water  in  the  pan. 

Record  readings  in  the  following  table: 


Day 

Time 

Dry  bulb 
reading 

Wet  bulb 
reading 

Difference 

Relative 
humidity 

Monday 

10.00 
12.00  m. 
2.00 

• 

Tuesday 

10.00 
12.00  m. 
2.00 

Wednesday 

10.00 
12.00  m. 
2.00 

Thursday 

10.00 
12.00  m. 
2.00 

Friday 

10.00 
12.00  m. 
2.00 

Saturday 

10.00 
12.00  m. 
2.00 

What  is  meant  by  saturation? 

What  is  absolute  humidity? 

What  effect  upon  life  growth  has  excessive  humidity? 

166 


96  —  Classification  of  Clouds 


Purpose  —  To  study  cloud  forms. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils. 


Name  and  describe  briefly  the  different  kinds  of  clouds.    (As  much  of  this  work  as  possible  should 
be  done  out  of  doors  where  the  different  forms  of  clouds  may  be  observed.) 


1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


2&1. 


2&3. 


1&3. 


167 


Sketch  with  colored  pencils  the  general  forms  of  the  four  different  kinds  of  clouds. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


168 


97  —  Precipitation 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  various  forms  of  precipitation.    (This  work  should  be  done  from  obser- 
vation.) 


Rain, — 

When  will  rain  occur? 

How  is  the  quantity  of  rain  measured? 

How  much  rain  fell  during  the  last  heavy  shower?    (This  should  be  measured  by  the  pupil 
as  a  home  exercise.) 


Snow, — 

When  will  snow  fall? 

Describe  the  snow  crystals.    (Charts  of  snow  crystals  should  be  kept  in  the  class  room.) 


Frost, — 

Where  does  frost  form? 

What  is  frost? 

Describe  the  forms  of  frost? 

Dew, — 

When  will  dew  form? 

What  is  dew  point? 

How  does  dew  form? 

What  atmospheric  conditions  will  prevent  dew  from  forming? 


Hail,— 

What  is  hail? 

What  conditions  are  necessary  for  hail  to  form? 

Which  of  these  forms  of  precipitation  are  valuable  and  which  are  detrimental  to  agricul- 
ture? 

169 


98  —  Rainfall  in  the  United  States 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  rainfall  of  the  United  States. 

Materials  —  Colored  pencils,  map  of  the  average  annual  rainfall  in  the  United  States. 

Upon  the  United  States  weather  map  color  lightly  the  following  rain  areas: 

0  inches  to  10  inches brown 

10  inches  to  20  inches yellow 

20  inches  to  40  inches green 

40  inches  to  60  inches blue 

60  inches  and  above red 


Explain  the  excessive  rainfall  in  the  following  areas: 

1  —  The  gulf  coast. 

2  —  The  northern  Pacific  coast. 

3  —  The  Tenn.-Ca.  highlands. 

Explain  the  lack  of  rainfall  in  the  following  areas: 

1  —  Nev.-Ariz.  plateau. 

2  —  Southern  California. 


170 


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171 


99  —  Climatic  Conditions 

Purpose  —  To  study  climatic  conditions. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils. 

Give  a  good  definition  of  climate. 

Explain  how  the  following  are  elements  of  climate: 

1  —  temperature 

2  —  humidity 

a  —  relative 

b  —  absolute 

0  —  degree  of  cloudiness 

d  —  precipitation 

3  —  winds 


Upon  the  world  map,  locate  the  climatic  zones  according  to  latitude.    (Use  a  blue  colored  pencil 
to  mark  the  boundaries  of  these  zones.) 

Why  is  latitude  an  unsatisfactory  limit  for  the  climatic  zones? 


Upon  the  world  map,  locate  the  climatic  zones  according  to  the  prevailing  winds.     (Use  a  redb 
colored  pencil  to  mark  the  boundaries  of  these  zones.) 

Is  this  a  better  classification  than  the  above  method? 

Why?  ,  ■ 

172 


Upon  the  world  map,  locate  the  climatic  zones  according  to  isotherms.     (Use  a  green  colored 
pencil  to  mark  the  boundaries  of  these  zones.) 

Is  this  climatic  division  better  than  the  two  previously  used? 


What  objections  are  there  to  this  isothermal  division? 


Explain  the  differences  between  the  oceanic  and  continental  climates. 


Draw  the  temperature  curves  for  the  following  places    (Latitudes  33  to  50) : 


Santa  F6 


New  York 


Seattle 


Madeira 


January  . 
February 
March 
'April  .  . 
May  .  . 
June  .  . 
July  .  . 
August .  . 
September 
October  . 
November 
December 


40 
46 
55 
64 
72 
84 
88 
85 
76 
66 
52 
44 


30 
31 
36 
47 
59 
70 
73 
71 
65 
55 
42 
34 


35 
37 
44 
49 
56 
60 
64 
65 
59 
52 
45 
40 


60 
59 
61 
62 
65 
67 
70 
71 
69 
68 
66 
61 


173 


174 


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175 


100  —  Weather  Record 

Purpose  —  To  keep  a  weather  record. 

Materials  —  Wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometers,  barometer,  cup  for  measuring  precipitation. 

Fill  in  the  following  table  from  observations  made  at  the  school. 


Date 


Day  of 
week 


Hour 


Barometric 
pressure 


Wind 
direction 


Kinds  of 
clouds 


Temper- 
ature 


Relative 
humidity 


Amount  of 
precipitation 


Rain  or 
snow 


176 


Date 


Day  of 
week 


Hour 


Barometric 
pressure 


Wind 
direction 


Kinds  of 
clouds 


Temper- 
ature 


Relative 
humidity 


Amount  of 
precipitation 


Rain  or 
snow 


177 


101  —  Weather  Conditions 


Purpose  —  To  study  weather  conditions. 

Materials  —  United  States  weather  maps  for  week  covered  in  the  weather  record  of  previous 
lesson. 


From  the  table  in  the  foregoing  lesson  plot  curves  for  the  barometric  pressure,  temperature, 
relative  humidity,  and  precipitation  for  a  week's  time. 

Repeat  this  at  later  intervals  in  the  school  year. 

Compare  the  results  with  a  United  States  weather  map  for  the  same  time. 

Explain  any  differences  that  occur  and  compare  the  weather  conditions  as  recorded  at  your  school 
with  those  of  the  nearest  large  city. 


178 


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179 


102  —  Weather  Maps 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  United  States  weather  maps. 
Materials  —  Several  weather  maps  of  consecutive  dates. 

Locate  the  high  and  low  pressure  areas  upon  the  weather  map  bearing  the  earliest  date. 

In  what  general  direction  do  these  areas  move? 

Where  are  the  high  pressure  areas  twenty-four  hours  later? 

Explain  why  the  high  and  low  pressure  areas  alternate? 

What  would  cause  a  high  or  low  pressure  area  to  divide? 


Locate  the  storm  centers  upon  each  map  and  give  the  directions  of  the  winds  about  each 
center. 


Describe  the  movements  of  any  rain  area  your  maps  may  show. 

What  has  been  the  average  precipitation  as  shown  by  your  maps  at  the  following  places: 

Charleston,  S.  C.  Portland,  Me. 

San  Francisco,  Cal.  Winnemucca,  Nev. 

What  has  been  the  average  daily  temperature  at  the  following  places : 

Atlanta,  Ga.  Helena,  Mont. 

Boston,  Mass.  Memphis,  Tenn. 

Duluth,  Minn.  Portland,  Ore. 

Describe  the  method  used  to  show  the  condition  of  the  weather  at  any  place. 


Upon  the  blank  weather  map,  draw  the  isotherms  and  isobars  for  any  one  day  represented 
by  your  weather  charts. 

180 


181 


V.     LIFE  DISTRIBUTION 

103  —  Life  Regions 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  life  regions  of  the  earth. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils. 

With  a  red  colored  pencil,  lightly  shade  the  world  areas  of  tropical  growth. 
Explain  why  these  areas  have  tropical  conditions. 


What  are  some  of  the  characteristic  tropical  plants  to  be  found  in  each  of  the  continents 
of  this  section? 


With  a  green  colored  pencil,  lightly  shade  the  savanna  areas. 

What  plants  and  animals  will  be  found  in  these  regions? 

With  a  yellow  colored  pencil,  lightly  shade  the  agricultural  areas  in  the  temperate  zones. 
Explain  why  these  areas  are  valuable  for  agricultural  purposes. 

With  a  blue  colored  pencil,  lightly  shade  the  plateau  sections  of  the  world. 
What  occupations  are  to  be  found  in  these  areas? 

Name  some  of  the  products  found  here. 

With  a  purple  colored  pencil,  lightly  shade  the  tundras  areas. 

Name  some  of  the  plants  and  animals  found  in  this  region. 
Describe  the  climatic  conditions  that  prevail  in  this  zone. 


Indicate  the  deserts  by  dotting  the  areas  where  they  abound. 

Indicate  by  dotted  lines  the  northern  and  southern  limits  of  the  palms;  the  northern  and  southern 
limits  of  grain. 

182 


183 


104  —  Classification  of  Plants 

Purpose  —  To  study  plant  classification. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils. 

Name  and  describe  a  few  plants  that  would  come  under  the  following  classification. 

1  —  Hydrophytes  (water  plants) 

2  —  Xerophytes  (desert  plants) 

3  —  Mesophytes  (intermediate  plants) 

Upon  the  map  of  North  America  indicate  the  following  plant  zones  by  shading  the  different  areas. 
Write  the  names  of  a  few  plants  to  be  found  in  each  zone. 

1  —  Boreal  zone  (purple) 

2  —  Transition  zone  (blue) 

3  —  Upper  Austral  zone  (green) 

4  —  Lower  Austral  zone  (yellow) 

5  —  Tropical  zone  (red) 


184 


Fill  in  the  following  list  of  plants  found^about  your  home. 
Native  trees. 

Foreign  trees. 

Common  shrubs. 

Grains. 


Fiber  plants. 


Water  plants. 


Wild  jElowers. 


Cultivated  flowers. 


Common  vegetables. 


Fruits.. 


185 


186 


105  —  Distribution  of  Forests 

Purpose  —  To  study  forest  distribution. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils. 

Upon  the  map  of  North  America,  locate  the  great  forest  areas. 
What  trees  are  found  the  farthest  north? 

What  trees  are  found  highest  up  on  the  mountain-side? 

What  is  meant  by  the  timber  line? 

What  trees  are  characteristic  of  southern  swamp  growth? 

Where  are  the  cabinet  woods  found? 

Label  the  areas  that  abound  in  the  following  trees : 

chestnut  —  spruce  —  ash  —  mahogany  —  cypress  —  redwood  —  pine  —  oak  —  maple 
poplar. 

Color  the  forest  areas  upon  the  United  States  map  as  indicated  below, 
hemlock  and  spruce  (red) 
hard  pine  (yellow) 
yellow  pine  and  cypress  (orange) 
oak  and  chestnut  (blue) 
redwood  and  fir  (green) 

187 


16S 


189 


106  —  Crop  Maps 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  great  crop  areas. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils. 

Upon  the  United  States  map,  color  the  great  crop  areas  as  follows: 
Wheat  (purple) 
Corn    (blue) 
Cotton  (green) 
Oats  (red) 
Tobacco  (yellow) 

Explain  the  climatic  conditions  that  prevail  in  each  of  these  areas. 
Wheat  — 


Com  — 


Cotton  — 


Oats  — 


Tobacco 


190 


107  —  Faunal  Distribution 


Purpose  —  To  study  faunal  distribution. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils. 


Upon  the  map  of  the  world,  shade  the  faunal  areas  as  indicated  below. 
Name  three  or  four  characteristic  animals  found  in  each  region. 

1  —  North  American  (red) 


2  —  Eurasian  (blue) 


3  —  South  American  (green) 


4  —  African  (yellow) 


5  —  Oriental  (purple) 


6  —  Australian  (violet) 


Upon  the  United  States  map  indicate  the  areas  in  which  the  following  animals  abound :        (The 
names  of  the  animals  should  be  written  in  their  proper  places.) 

Horse  —  cow  —  sheep  —  hog  —  deer  —  bison  —  grizzly  bear  —  possum  —  eagle  — 

buzzard  —  ostrich  —  salmon  —  mackerel  —  cod  —  tarpon  —  oyster  —  lobster. 

192 


193 


194 


108  —  Distribution  of  Man 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  distribution  of  mankind. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils. 

Upon  the  map  of  the  world  indicate  the  areas  in  which  the  following  races  of  mankind  predominate: 
Ethiopian  race  (purple) 
Mongolian  race  (yellow) 
American  race  (red) 
Caucasian  race  (blue) 


Indicate  the  original  homes  of  these  races  by  printing  the  initial  letters  of  their  names  in  the 
areas  from  which  they  came. 


What  influence  has  climate  had  upon  racial  distribution? 


What  physiographic  features  have  formed  barriers  to  the  spread  of  mankind? 


What  natural  features  has  man  taken  advantage  of  to  further  his  spread? 


How  has  man  influenced  the  geography  of  his  home? 


195 


196 


VI.    PHYSIOGRAPHIC  REGIONS 
109  —  Atlantic  Regions 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  Atlantic  region. 

Materials  —  Colored  pencils,  Boston  Bay  (Mass.),  Boothbay  (Me.),  Sandy  Hook  (N.  J.-N.  Y.), 
Tolchester  (Md.)  topographic  sheets. 

(Consult  the  regional  map  at  the  end  of  these  exercises  for  the  limits  of  this  section.) 

Sketch  the  outUne  of  this  section  upon  the  following  blank  page.    Locate  the  following  areas  upon 
your  map  by  shading  with  colored  pencils. 

1  —  Atlantic  coastal  plain. 

a  —  Submarine  plain, 
b  —  Tidal  flats. 
c  —  Emerged  plain. 

2  —  The  Piedmont  region. 

(Locate  the  fall  line.) 

3  —  Appalachian  mountain  system. 

>«a  —  South  mountain  and  Blue  ridge, 
b  —  Great  valley, 
c  —  Allegheny  ridge, 
d  —  Appalachian  plateau, 
e  —  Adirondack  mountains. 

With  the  aid  of  the  following  topographic  sheets,  describe  the  coast  line  north  of  Cape  Cod. 
Boston  Bay  (Mass.),  Boothbay  (Me.) 

Describe  the  coastline  south  of  New  York. 

Sandy  Hook  (N.  J.-N.  Y.),  Tolchester  (Md.) 

Place  upon  your  map  the  important  cities  located  on  the  Fall  Line. 
Draw  the  streams  that  drain  from  the  Appalachian  plateau  into  the  — 

1  —  Atlantic  ocean. 

2  —  Great  Lakes. 

3  —  Ohio  river. 

Why  is  the  Mohawk  valley  an  important  medium  of  communication? 

What  effect  has  it  had  upon  the  development  of  the  city  of  New  York? 

197 


198 


110  —  The  Lake  Region 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  Lake  region. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils. 

(Consult  the  regional  map  at  the  end  of  these  exercises  for  the  limits  of  this  section.) 

Sketch  the  outline  of  this  section  upon  the  following  blank  page.    Locate  the  following  areas  by 
shading  with  colored  pencils. 

1  —  Superior  lowland. 

2  —  St.  Paul-Madison  upland. 

3  —  Green  Bay  lowland. 

4  —  Michigan-Huron-Erie  lowland. 

5  —  Lansing  upland. 

6  —  Niagara  upland. 

7  —  Ontario  lowland.  ' 

Locate  the  principal  lake  port  towns.    Name  six  and,  give  their  principal  exports. 

1  — 

2  — 

3  — 

4  — 

5  — 

6  — 

Locate  the  great  copper  region  of  this  section. 

Why  is  the  area  about  Cleveland,  Ohio,  a  great  iron  manufacturing  center? 

Of  what  importance  is  the  Soo  canal?      (Locate  it  on  your  map.) 

Name  a  few  historic  events  that  have  occured  in  this  section. 

Account  for  the  location  of  Chicago. 


199 


200 


Ill  —  The  Central  Section 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  Central  section. 

Materials  —  Colored  pencils,  Evansville  quadrangle  (Wis.),  Caldwell  (Kans.)  topographic  sheets. 

(Consult  the  regional  map  at  the  end  of  these  exercises  for  the  limits  of  this  section.) 

Sketch  the  outline  of  this  section  upon  the  following  blank  page.    Locate  the  following  areas  by 
shading  with  colored  pencils. 

1  —  The  prairies. 

2  —  Great  Western  plains. 

3  —  Ozark  highlands. 

4  —  Black  hills. 

5  —  Bad  lands. 

Draw  the  Mississippi  river  and  its  principal  tributaries  that  are  found  in  this  section. 
Make  a  list  of  the  six  principal  drainage  areas. 

1  — 

2  — 

3  — 

4  — 

5  — 

6  — 

With  the  aid  of  topographic  sheets  describe: 

The  upper  area  (Evansville  quadrangle). 

The  middle  section  (Caldwell). 

Locate  the  principal  river  cities  and  explain  the  topographic  reasons  for  their  situation. 
What  are  the  "  staked  plains  "  of  Texas?. 
Name  the  principal  industries  of  this  section. 
Where  is  the  wheat  area  located? 
The  corn  area? 
The  apple  area? 
The  grape  area? 

201 


202 


112  —  The  Southern  Region 


Purpose  —  To  study  the  Southern  region. 

Materials  —  Colored  pencils,  Donaldsonville  (La.),  Mississippi  river  delta  (Coast  survey)  topo- 
graphic sheets. 

(Consult  the  regional  map  at  the  end  of  these  exercises  for  the  limits  of  this  section.) 

Sketch  the  outline  of  this  section  upon  the  following  blank  page.    Locate  the  following  areas  by 
shading  with  colored  pencils. 

1  —  Mississippi  delta. 

2  —  Mississippi  flood  plain. 

3  —  Alabama-Georgia  cuesta. 

4  —  Llano  Estacado. 

5  —  Pecos  valley. 

6  —  San  Francisco  mountains. 

7  —  Coastal  plain  (other  than  Mississippi  delta). 

Draw  the  Mississippi  river  and  its  tributaries.    Draw  the  principal  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico. 

Locate  the  principal  river  and  gulf  cities. 

Describe  the  area  as  shown  in  the  Donaldsonville  (La.)  sheet. 


Describe  the  Mississippi  river  as  shown  in  the  Mississippi  river  delta  sheet. 


To  what  climatic  division  does  this  section  belong? 
What  are  its  products? 

What  effect  upon  the  industries  and  cities  of  this  section  will  the  Panama  canal  have? 

203 


204 


113  —  The  Interior  Section 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  Interior  section. 

Materials  —  Colored  pencils,  Canyon  (Wyo.),  Henry  mountains  (Utah)  topographic  sheets. 

(Consult  the  regional  map  at  the  end  of  these  exercises  for  the  limits  of  this  section.) 

Sketch  the  outline  of  this  section  upon  the  following  blank  page.     Locate  the  following  areas  by 
shading  with  colored  pencils. 

1  —  Rocky  mountains. 

2  —  Wahsatch  mountains. 

3  —  Colorado  plateau. 

4  —  Interior  basin. 

Locate  the  principal  drainage  areas  and  draw  the  largest  rivers  found  in  each. 

Describe  the  topography  of  the  section  shown  by  the  Canyon  (Wyo.)  sheet. 


Describe  the  section  shown  by  the  Henry  mountains  sheet. 


Describe  the  formation  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  Utah. 


Locate  the  principal  industrial  areas  of  this  section. 

Indicate  upon  your  map  where  the  largest  cities  are  found. 
Why  does  this  section  have  an  arid  climate? 


What  mountains  shut  off  the  westerly  winds? 
What  and  where  is  the  National  park? 
Why  are  forest  reservations  necessary? 

205 


206 


114  —  The  Pacific  Section 

Purpose  —  To  study  the  Pacific  section. 
Materials  —  Colored  pencils. 

(Consult  the  regional  map  at  the  end  of  these  exercises  for  the  limits  of  this  section.) 

Sketch  the  outline  of  this  section  upon  the  following  blank  page.    Locate  the  following  areas  by 
shading  with  colored  pencils. 

1  —  Coast  ranges. 

2  —  Sierra  Nevada  mountains. 

3  —  Great  valley  of  California. 

4  —  Columbia  plateau. 

5  —  Sound  valley. 

6  —  Klamath  mountains. 

7  —  Salton  valley. 

Locate  the  principal  drainage  areas  and  draw  the  largest  rivers  found  in  each. 
Describe  the  canyons  of  the  Snake  and  Columbia  rivers. 


Describe  the  coast  line  of  this  section  and  compare  it  with  the  Atlantic  coast  line. 


What  are  the  principal  industries  of  this  section?    (Locate  them  on  your  map.) 


Describe  the  forest  areas  of  Oregon  and  Washington. 
What  and  where  are  the  important  fishing  industries? 
Locate  the  largest  cities  upon  your  map. 
Explain  why  this  section  has  such  a  mild  climate. 

207 


208 


209 


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